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L. H. Bailey, Editor 



BUSH-FRUITS 



Wtyz l&ural Science £>mt& 

Edited by L. H. Bailey 
The Soil. King. 

The Spraying of Plants. Lodeman. 
Milk and its Products. Wing. Enlarged and Revised. 
The Fertility of the Land. Roberts. 
The Principles of Fruit-growing. Bailey. 20th 

Edition, Revised. 
Bush-fruits. Card. Revised. 
Fertilizers. Voorhees. Revised. 
The Principles of Agriculture. Bailey. Revised. 
Irrigation and Drainage. King. 
The Farmstead. Roberts. 
Rural Wealth and Welfare. Fairchild. 
The Principles of Vegetable-gardening. Bailey. 
Farm Poultry. Watson. Enlarged and Revised. 
The Feeding of Animals. Jordan. Revised. 
The Farmer's Business Handbook. Roberts. 
The Diseases of Animals. Mayo. 
The Horse. Roberts. 
How to Choose a Farm. Hunt. 
Forage Crops. Voorhees. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. Lipman. 
The Nursery-book. Bailey. 
Plant-breeding. Bailey and Gilbert. Revised. 
The Forcing-book. Bailey. 

The Pruning-book. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual Series.) 
Fruit-growing in Arid Regions. Paddock and Whipple. 
Rural Hygiene. Ogden. 
Dry-farming. Widtsoe. 
Law for the American Farmer. Green. 
Farm Boys and Girls. McKeever. 
The Training and Breaking of Horses. Harper. 
Sheep-farming in North America. Craig. 
Cooperation in Agriculture. Powell. 
The Farm Woodlot. Cheyney and Wentling. 
Household Insects. Herrick. 
Citrus Fruits. Coit. 
Principles of Rural Credits. Morman. 
Beekeeping. Phillips. 

Subtropical Vegetable-Gardening. Rolfs. 
Turf for Golf Courses. Piper and Oakley. 
The Potato. Gilbert. 
Strawberry Growing. Fletcher. 




Plate I. Blackberries in bloom. 



BUSH FRUITS 



BY 

FRED W. CARD 



NEW AND REVISED EDITION 



£ta fork 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1917 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1898 
By FRED W. CARD 



Copyright, 1917 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Set up and electrotyped, October, 1898. 

Reprinted with corrections, 1901; November, 1903, 

and November, 1907. 



New and Revised Edition, May, 1917. 



y 

JUN -7 1917 



©CI.A462888 



EXPLANATION 

The book on Bush-Fruits was first published in 1898, 
when the author, Fred W. Card, was professor of horti- 
culture in the Rhode Island College of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts. He had held a similar chair in the Uni- 
versity of Nebraska, and as a post-graduate student in 
Cornell University he had made a special study of these 
fruits and the book grew out of a thesis on the subject. 
The book is revised by the author, now a farmer on his 
own farm in Pennsylvania, with the purpose to make it 
as useful as possible to the actual grower of the fruits. 
The bulletin literature of the subject has also been gone 
over and assorted. The cultural methods have not 
changed greatly, however, and even many of the old va- 
rieties are still commercially important. The parts on 
insects and diseases have been revised by specialists. The 
botanical accounts, which were a feature of the old book, 
are omitted because fuller treatments are now accessible. 
The author wishes to express his special obligation to 
members of the staff of the New York Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station (Geneva), particularly to F. C. Stewart 
and 0. M. Taylor; also to F. V. Coville, United States 
Department of Agriculture, for aid in the discussion of 
the blueberry. The author now places the book before 
the public in its new dress as a practical manual on the 
usual growing and handling of currants, gooseberries, 
blackberries, dewberries, raspberries, blueberries, and a 
few minor woody small-fruits. 



CONTENTS 

Part I 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 
CHAPTER I 

' PAGES 

Introductory Discussion 1-40 

Status of bush-fruits in the home-garden and in com- 
mercial culture, 1 — The location, 4 — The site and the 
soil, 5 — Fertilizers, 8 — Suggestions on planting, 9 — 
Management of the land, 13 — Tillage tools, 16— 
Pruning, 17 — Staking and trellising, 19 — Winter- 
killing, 20 — Propagation, 26 — Thinning the fruit, 
28 — Forcing bush-fruits, 28 — Suggestions on picking, 
29 — Packages and marketing, 31 — Cold storage, 33 — 
Methods of crossing berries, 34. 

Part II 

THE BRAMBLES 

CHAPTER II 

The Red Raspberries 41-59 

The soil, 41 — The site and exposure, 42 — Fertilizers, 
43 — Propagation, 45 — Planting, 46 — Pollination, 47 
—Tillage, 48 — Pruning, 48 — Autumn fruiting, 51 — 
Harvesting and marketing, 53 — Uses, 53 — Duration 
of plantations, 54 — Hardiness, 56 — Yields, 57 — Nor- 
mal profits, 58 — Note on the hybrid reds, 58. 



viii Contents 



CHAPTER III 

PAGES 

Black Raspberries 60-87 

Soil for black-caps, 60 — Location, 61 — Fertilizers, 62 — 
Propagation, 64 — Planting, 66 — Tillage, 69 — Prun- 
ing, 70 — Harvesting, 73 — Methods of drying, 76 — 
Marketing, 82 — Duration of plantations, 82 — 
Clearing the ground, 83 — Yields, 84 — Usual profits, 
86. 

CHAPTER IV 

The Blackberries 88-118 

Soil, 88 — -Fertilizers, 89 — Propagation, 91 — Planting, 
94 — Tillage and mulching, 97 — Pruning, 100 — Har- 
vesting and marketing, 102 — Uses, 103 — Lessening 
the effects of drought, 107 — Duration of plantations, 
109 — Removing the plants, 109 — Hardiness, 110 — - 
Yields, 111 — Profits, 113 — The evergreen black- 
berries, 117. 



CHAPTER V 

The Dewberries 119-133 

Soil, 124 — Location, 124 — Fertilizers, 124 — Propaga- 
tion, 125— Planting, 125— Tillage, 126— Pruning and 
training, 127 — Harvesting and marketing, 129 — 
Duration of plantations, 129 — Killing out the patch, 
129— Hardiness, 130— Yield, 130— Profits, 131— The 
western dewberries, 131. 

CHAPTER VI 

Miscellaneous Brambles 134-146 

The Oriental raspberries, 134 — (The mayberry, the 
strawberry-raspberry, the wineberry, the Chinese 



Contents ix 

PAGES 

raspberry, Rubus xanthocarpus) — Ornamental species, 
138 (Rubus odoratus, R. parviflorus, R. deliciosus, 
R. cratcegifolius, R. arcticus, R. phanicolasius, R. 
spectabilis, R. laciniatus, double white and pink bram- 
bles, R. trifidus, R. Henryi.) 

CHAPTER VII 

Varieties op Raspberries 147-202 

Black raspberries, 148— Recommended varieties of 
black-caps, 165 — The red and hybrid raspberries, 165 
— History and future of the red raspberries, 170 — 
Varieties of red and hybrid raspberries, 176 — Recom- 
mended varieties, 202. 

CHAPTER VIII 

Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries . . . 203-232 
The blackberries, 203 — -Botanical derivation, 204 — His- 
tory and future of the blackberry, 206 — The dew- 
berries, 209 — Botanical derivation, 210 — Cultivated 
varieties of blackberries and dewberries, 214 — Recom- 
mended varieties, 231. 

CHAPTER IX 

Insects affecting the Brambles . . . . . . 233-249 

CHAPTER X 
Diseases of the Brambles 250-262 



x Contents 

Part III 

THE GROSELLES 
CHAPTER XI 

FAGES 

Currants 263-281 

Soil and location, 265 — Fertilizers, 266 — Propagation, 
267— Planting, 270— Subsequent tillage, 271— Prun- 
ing, 272— Gathering and marketing, 275— Uses, 276 
— Duration of plantations, 277 — Hardiness, 278 — 
Yield, 279— Profits, 280— Black currants, 281. 

CHAPTER XII 

Gooseberries 282-298 

Soil and location, 283 — Fertilizers, 284 — Propagation, 
284— Planting, 288— After treatment, 288— Prun- 
ing, 289— Gathering and marketing, 291 — Uses, 293— 
Duration of plantations, 294 — Hardiness, 295— 
Yield, 295— Profits, 296— English gooseberries, 297. 

CHAPTER XIII 

Varieties op Currants 299-315 

Botanical derivation, 299 — History of the cultivated 
currant, 302 — Red and white currants, 304 — Euro- 
pean black currants, 312 — The golden or buffalo cur- 
rant, 314 — The American black currant, 314 — Recom- 
mended varieties, 315. 

CHAPTER XIV 

Varieties of Gooseberries ........ 316-333 

Botanical derivation, 316 — History and future, 318 — The 
kinds of gooseberries, 321 — Recommended varieties, 
331 — Ornamental currants and gooseberries, 331. 



Contents xi 

CHAPTER XV 

PAGES 

Insects Injurious to the Groselles 334-347 

CHAPTER XVI 

Diseases of the Groselles 348-354 

Part IV 

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES 

CHAPTER XVII 
Other Species of Bush-Fruits 355-395 

INDEX (page 397) 



PLATES 

I. Blackberries in bloom Frontispiece 

Opposite page 

II. Black raspberries 60 

III. Evaporating raspberries 78 

IV. Loganberries in bloom 132 

V. Raspberries, Black Pearl and Herbert 186 

VI. Loganberry fruit and loading crates 222 

VII. Snyder blackberry 228 

VIII. Enemies of brambles 254 

IX. One-year currants 268 

X. Two-year currants 278 

XL Two good currants 304 

XII. Two types of gooseberries 318 

XIII. Gooseberries, Chautauqua and Columbus .... 322 

XIV. Industry gooseberry 324 

XV. Afflictions of groselles 334 

XVI. Blueberries 366 



BUSH-FRUITS 



BUSHFRUXTS 

PART I 
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTORY DISCUSSION 

Bush-fkuits occupy a place of their own in the pom- 
ological field. They do not meet the universal demand 
that does the strawberry, and cannot be grown on such 
an extensive scale under most conditions. Neither have 
they the stability and lasting qualities of the tree-fruits, 
but they fit into their own place between the two and fill 
there an important position. 

Their place in the home-garden is assured and needs 
no comment. Each kind is a favorite of some persons, 
and all are relished by most people. To the busy farmer 
they offer a healthful and appetizing luxury with a mini- 
mum outlay of labor. To the business or professional 
man seeking rest and relaxation in his garden, they afford 
a delightful pastime as well. For the additional attention 
which he is likely to give, they will return increased 
lusciousness and beauty, coupled with the personal in- 
terest that accompanies a product of one's own growing. 

In the commercial field, the position of these fruits is 
varied. The demand is unequal, the uses different, and 
the success attendant on their culture greatly dependent 

1 



2 Bush-Fruits 

on local conditions. The census of 1910 shows a falling off 
in the acreage devoted to all lines of small fruits in the 
United States. Even the strawberry, which is much more 
largely grown than any of the others, lost ground by some 
8,000 acres within the previous decade. Blackberries 
and dewberries, which are classed together, nearly held 
their own. Raspberries and loganberries, which are also 
grouped under one head, dropped from 60,916 acres in 
1899, to 48,668 acres in 1909, the greatest decrease being 
in the East North-Central division. A marked exception 
to the general decline is shown by these two fruits in 
the Mountain and Pacific divisions. In the latter the 
acreage more than doubled within that period. This is 
probably due in great part to the introduction and ex- 
tensive planting of the loganberry. Currants and goose- 
berries both lost heavily during this period. 

Large areas of some of the bush-fruits are grown at 
times, but their more important place is in diversified fruit- 
growing. Under exceptional conditions, with an assured 
market at hand, the growing of large areas of a single 
fruit may be wise, but under normal conditions it is likely 
to be fraught with disappointment. The production and 
consumption of strawberries is nearly or quite as great 
now as ever, but the tendency is apparently away from 
larger areas, the total product being grown by a much 
larger number of men, most of whom supply the de- 
mands of their own locality, rather than depend on the 
wider wholesale markets of the country. This tendency 
is doubtless wise, for the home market is often the best. 

Personal experience may serve as an illustration. Lo- 
cated in a general farming community, remote from large 



Introductory Discussion 3 

centers of population, to market any fruit extensively 
would mean shipment to distant points. This is a con- 
venient outlet for surplus, but the net returns are nearly 
always less than those secured at home. This home mar- 
ket never pays the fancy price that the grower is likely to 
hold in his mind as the ideal for his efforts; neither does 
it expect to secure fruit at the glut prices which often pre- 
vail in the large markets. This market will take what it 
requires, at prices that afford fair profits to the intelligent 
grower. It is the part of wisdom to try to meet the de- 
mands of this home trade. This means that the grower 
should raise more of some things, and leave out other 
things which he would like to grow. If he grows goose- 
berries, the home market may not want them; these must 
be shipped. For strawberries and raspberries the market 
is hungry. He can therefore grow a certain quantity 
at a good profit, while to grow them largely would 
doubtless prove unprofitable. Peaches, likewise, are much 
in demand. The best trade is often from the farmers, who 
sometimes come as far as ten miles to get the fruit and 
take it home with them. These persons come to look the 
grower's way for such fruit as they want whether he grows 
it or not. It is wise to meet their demands more fully. 

It will readily be seen that the conditions prevailing 
at such a location are very different from those in a 
strictly fruit-growing locality, where most farmers are 
producers rather than consumers. Yet many a grower 
will find its counterpart in his own situation. Its citation 
merely serves to emphasize the old problem of diversity 
of surroundings and the need of individuality in meeting 
a given problem. 



Bush-Fruits 



THE LOCATION 



The question of location may oftener than otherwise be 
a problem of adaptation, provided the growing of bush- 
fruits is merely to fit into some general scheme of agricul- 
tural operations. If one is bent on doing some certain 
thing, and that alone, then one should study the matter 
of location well, and choose a site adapted to his needs. 
This is seldom done. More frequently other considerations 
determine where the anchor shall be cast. The problem 
must ever be an individual one. Any attempt to solve it 
in a large way will be futile and result in little but useless 
generalities. Let the grower study well his tastes and his 
surroundings, talk with fruit handlers in the community, 
then learn from experience. There is no other way. 

No attempt will be made here to discuss the adapta- 
bility of different regions of the country to the growing of 
bush-fruits, yet this is an important consideration for the 
commercial grower. The writer was unable to grow rasp- 
berries and blackberries successfully in the dry climate 
of the Plains region, and met with no marked success in 
the fickle climate of the New England coast. This does 
not mean that these fruits cannot be grown in these loca- 
tions. It does mean, however, that the difficulties are 
greater than in the region of the central states. Deficient 
moisture in one case, and excessive moisture in the other, 
had much to do with results. 

Summer heat is a greater enemy than winter cold over 
much of the United States, especially in the southern 
states and the semi-arid regions of the West. In many 
such localities bush-fruits cannot be profitably grown. 



The Site and the Soil 5 

A cool moist locality is much more favorable for all these 
fruits than a warm and dry one. Black-caps succeed bet- 
ter on the Plains than either red raspberries or blackber- 
ries, while in the South blackberries thrive better than 
raspberries. Propagation of black-caps is found to be 
much more difficult in the far South, requiring partially 
shaded locations for success. 

THE SITE AND THE SOIL 

The immediate location or site is a matter of importance 
with the bush-fruits. All are subject to injury from spring 
frosts, and are therefore safer on elevated land. All are 
subject to injury from summer drought and excessive heat. 
The ideal location, therefore, is a cool northern exposure 
which does not feel the full effects of the sun's rays in mid- 
summer. In practical farm operations other things usually 
determine the particular location of a plantation, but if a 
choice is available there is an advantage in choosing as 
above. 

Bush-fruits will thrive on almost all soils but most 
kinds do best on strong moist land, which is deep and 
porous, but well drained. Heavy undrained soils are un- 
suitable and should never be chosen. All are not equally 
well adapted to every kind of soil. If a range of soils were 
available, the dewberry would naturally take its place 
on the light sand, the red raspberry and the blackberry 
on the lighter sandy loams, the black-cap on the heavier 
sandy or lighter clay loams, with the currant and goose- 
berry on the strong clay loam or even on fairly stiff heavy 
clay. Varieties differ also, especially among the brambles. 



6 Bush-Fruits 

Strong rank growers may develop too much cane-growth 
with deficient fruiting qualities if the soil is heavy and 
rich. This is particularly likely to occur with black- 
berries and red raspberries. Winter-killing is often the 
sequel to rank growth of canes. 

Drought resistance is really the prime essential to be 
sought in the choice of soils. The soil which will provide 
the best supply of moisture during the ripening period is 
the one which is likely to give the most profitable returns. 
This quality can be greatly enhanced by methods of 
handling. A soil which is well filled with humus, and in 
good tilth, will withstand drought far better than a similar 
one which lacks humus and is not well tilled. Recently 
turned sod is objectionable because inconvenient to fur- 
row and plant. It is difficult thoroughly to firm the soil 
about the roots in such land. The percentage of loss is 
therefore likely to be higher and the rate of growth slower. 
But the sooner after the sod has rotted that the field can 
be planted, the better will be the conditions for growth. 
Hence land which has been tilled but one year is better 
than that which has been longer under the plow. Even 
sod land plowed early in the fall may be used for spring 
planting the following year with good results. 

A heavy sod in process of decay is the best source from 
which to obtain humus whether for bush-fruits or other 
crops. Unfortunately this supply is soon exhausted, as 
the land remains under tillage, and must be supplemented 
from other sources. Stable-manure used for fertilizer will 
help to maintain the supply but is insufficient for best 
results, unless used very heavily. Cover-crops have not 
been extensively used in bush-fruit plantations, but a 



The Site and the Soil 7 

limited experience shows that they are decidedly advan- 
tageous. What the particular cover-crop shall be will 
always be determined by conditions. Where crimson 
clover thrives it is undoubtedly one of the best. For 
northern latitudes hairy vetch is more dependable. Rye 
should be avoided for, unless uprooted at just the right 
moment in spring, it so quickly saps moisture from the 
ground that the crop may suffer much. Its growth in 
spring is so rapid that a very little delay caused by un- 
favorable weather or any one of the many things which are 
always hindering in farm work may cause serious injury. 1 

Soil acidity may have considerable influence on results. 
Its effects differ greatly with the different types of fruit. 
The red raspberry is impatient with an acid soil and will 
respond well to an application of lime. The black-cap is 
not sensitive to acidity. It may even object to too heavy 
applications of lime. Blackberries are comparatively in- 
different, but may be helped some by lime if the soil is 
very sour. Currants and gooseberries appear to behave 
in much the same way, being somewhat benefited when 
the soil is very sour. Huckleberries, on the other hand, 
demand a sour soil and will only thrive when it is present. 

Thorough preparation of the soil is essential, especially 
deep plowing, with a good plow which will thoroughly 
pulverize the soil. One should remember that he is to 
plow but once and the crop lasts long; therefore, the work 
should be thorough. Subsoiling may be advantageous 
under exceptional conditions, but under those conditions 
underdraining will probably be better. Dynamiting, de- 

1 For a fuller discussion of cover-crops in their relation to fruit- 
growing, see Bailey's "Principles of Fruit-growing," Revised Ed. 



8 Bush-Fruits 

signed to accomplish the same object, is more in use at 
present, but apparently no more likely to prove generally 
beneficial. 

FERTILIZERS 

Few definite results seem to be available showing what 
fertilizers to use. In fact definite results with fertilizers 
are not easily obtained anywhere, and when gotten may 
be of very indefinite value under conditions differing from 
those of the experiment. A knowledge and application 
of the general principles of plant feeding are much more 
valuable than any specific directions or rules. Stable- 
manure is a safe material to use where available, unless it 
be on moist fertile soil where there is a tendency to rank 
and tender growth of canes. If supplemented with min- 
eral elements, the results are likely to be better. Basic 
slag is undoubtedly one of the best sources of phosphoric 
acid. Wood-ashes form an ideal source of potash, but are 
so seldom available that muriate of potash is much oftener 
used, 100 pounds to the acre being sufficient. Stable- 
manure is best applied in fall or winter, so that it may be- 
come available for early spring growth and not foster a 
late fall growth which may lead to winter-killing. 

Leguminous cover-crops, if used, may furnish all the 
nitrogen needed under many conditions. If it becomes 
necessary to supply this element in the form of chemicals, 
it can be obtained from nitrate of soda or dried blood. 
One hundred pounds of the former or 125 pounds of the 
latter, to the acre, will be ample under average conditions. 
Voorhees 1 recommends a basic formula consisting of 150 
1 "Fertilizers," Revised Ed., p. 313. 



Suggestions on Planting 9 

pounds of ground bone and 100 pounds of muriate of 
potash, to be supplemented with nitrogen as needed. 



SUGGESTIONS ON PLANTING 

Planting may be done in spring or fall. Each time has 
its advantages. In fall planting the work can be con- 
ducted more leisurely and when the ground is in the right 
condition. In spring there is always a rush of work and 
often the ground is too wet to work well until the season 
is late. If mulched with manure or earth, fall-set plants 
will generally go through the winter in safety. When 
spring opens such a plant is ready to beign growth at 
once. In regions of excessive or deficient rainfall, fall 
planting is less likely to succeed. In the one case plants 
are often lifted by heaving; in the other they may suffer 
from winter drought. Spring planting, if done early and 
under proper conditions, is always safe and often best. It 
is particularly best for black-caps and dewberries. A 
point worth remembering is that the soil is much more 
easily worked following spring planting than following fall 
planting. This may materially affect the cost of the first 
season's care. Currants and gooseberries begin growth 
so early that it is more difficult to get them in on time. 
The young shoots which spring up from black raspberry 
tips are very tender and easily broken when started, hence 
late spring planting should be avoided. 

For increasing a stock of red raspberries or blackberries 
on one's own grounds, young shoots of the present sea- 
son's growth may be used with good results. Transplant 
them like cabbage plants any time after they are four 



10 Bush-Fruits 

inches high. If much taller than this cut off the tops. 
They should be well established by fall. All plants, and 
especially red raspberries and blackberries, should be 
carefully lifted. If carelessly pulled up, the plant is likely 
to break at the connection with the root from which it 
springs, leaving only a straight cane, with very few roots 
attached. 

The individuality of the parent plant is worth con- 
sidering when it is feasible to do so. Plants of the same 
variety may vary, widely in productiveness and size of 
fruit. It is reasonable to expect some of these differences 
to reappear in the offspring. This point has doubtless 
been over-emphasized in some cases. Great claims have 
sometimes been made for so-called "pedigree" plants. 
Heredity through mere division of the parent plant does 
not operate in the same way as it does in sexual reproduc- 
tion of animal life. Many of the differences which ap- 
pear in plants of the same variety are due to different 
conditions to which the plant may have been subjected, 
and may not reappear in the young plants taken from it. 
Yet every practical grower would rather have a strong, 
thrifty plant, from a vigorous and productive parent, than 
the opposite. Vigor and thrift are essential. " Pedigree" 
other than this is of doubtful value. 

Six feet apart is a common and convenient distance for 
bush-fruit rows, with plants two to three feet apart in the 
rows. Under some conditions check-rows may be pref- 
erable, since their use reduces the amount of hand work 
needed to keep the plantation clean. In that case plants 
may be put four to five feet apart each way. Blackberries 
and red raspberries, owing to their suckering habit, natu- 



Suggestions on Planting 11 

rally form hedge-rows. These are inconvenient to -keep 
clean, but produce more fruit than the smaller number of 
plants which will be left in hills. Currants and goose- 
berries adapt themselves readily to hill culture, in fields 
of sufficient size. In dry climates plants should be farther 
apart than where moisture is more abundant. Too close 
planting in a moist climate, especially in a sheltered loca- 
tion where the wind cannot have free play, may favor the 
spread of fungous diseases. When rows are placed six 
feet apart, it may sometimes be worth while to set the 
plants four feet apart in the rows and line them the op- 
posite way so that the rows may be crossed with horse 
and cultivator when the plants are small and when the 
old canes are first removed after fruiting. 

If plants are received from a distance, the sooner they 
can be set the better, but if conditions are unfavorable it 
is better to wait. Heeling-in is a simple process, and if 
carefully done the plants may be safely kept for some 
time. In the shade of a building is a good place to do this. 
A shallow trench should be opened, with one side slightly 
slanting. Loosen the bunches enough so that the roots 
may all come in contact with the earth, then lay them 
against the slanting side and cover the roots carefully, 
pressing the earth firmly about them. Tier after tier 
may be packed in this way. If too dry when received, 
placing the plants in water or covering them entirely with 
earth for a time will help them to recover. 

The most convenient method of planting is to throw out 
good deep furrows with a plow. If the plants are to be 
set in check-rows, the field should first be marked at right 
angles to the furrows. It is the practice of some growers 



12 Bush-Fruits 

to use stakes for all such furrowing out. At least three are 
needed, one for either end and one between. Care must be 
taken to see that these are set in perfect range to begin 
with. Notches are cut on each to give the correct dis- 
tance apart for the rows. Starting at the first stake a 
mark is made in the soil and the stake moved to the place 
for the next row. The driver should then step between 
the heads of the team, taking each horse by the bit and 
walking between them, keeping his eye constantly on 
the two stakes ahead and in exact range with them. A 
man behind keeps the plow following in his footsteps. 
Before the middle stake is reached one should try to catch 
some object in the distance, by which to keep the proper 
range from that point to the end of the row, after moving 
this stake to the next row. When the end is reached a 
mark is made for the starting point of the second row 
and the stake set for the third one. It is ordinarily better 
to return in the same furrow, for by going twice in the 
same row the soil is turned out in both directions and left 
in a finer and better condition for covering the plants. 
It is often possible also to correct irregularities of the 
furrow caused by stones throwing the plow to one side or 
from other reasons. Another advantage is that in going 
but once in a furrow, with these turned in opposite direc- 
tions, the alternate spaces are likely to differ in width. 
If it seems desirable to have a straight landside to the 
furrow, against which to place the plants in setting, the 
plow should pass through but once. In that case it is 
often better to furrow but one way, driving back each 
time without plowing a furrow. With a well-trained team, 
a good driver can make the furrows very straight alone, 



Management of the Land 13 

but it is more convenient to let one man attend to the plow 
while another leads the team. 

If the soil is deep, it may be well to make the furrows 
deep and set the plants well below the surface, only par- 
tially filling in the furrow at the time of planting. It is 
sometimes thought that plants so set are better able to 
withstand drought and will stand up better. That de- 
pends much on soil conditions. If the subsoil is hard and 
unfavorable for root-growth, and the surface soil shallow, 
deep planting will not be wise. 

In well-prepared ground, with the furrows deep enough, 
the plants are quickly set with the hands alone, drawing 
the earth over the roots and firming it well, but leaving 
much of the furrow to be filled in with a hoe or by the sub- 
sequent cultivation. It is best to carry small plants of 
this kind in water, from which they are removed only as 
set. If several persons are at work, one may carry and 
drop the plants while the others set. The plants should 
be dropped no faster than they are set. If one person is 
working alone, the plants may be carried in a pail par- 
tially filled with water from which they are removed as 
needed. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE LAND 

Bush-fruits will not fully occupy the soil the first year. 
Intercropping is, therefore, permissible. With rows six 
feet apart a row of almost any tilled crop may be placed 
between. Even strawberries may be used, though these 
are less desirable because remaining until the second year. 
The advisability of intercropping depends much on the 



14 Bush-Fruits 

fertility of the soil and the methods of the grower. Some- 
times it is wise, sometimes unwise. 

The first year's cultivation is simple. The same care 
which any other hoed crop should receive will suffice. 
The better the tillage, the better the growth; the more 
complete the dust mulch, the more moisture will be con- 
served. 

The tillage of succeeding years is not so simple. Many 
soils become very hard when not plowed, and weeds soon 
gain a foothold. Here is a case where the proverbial 
"stitch in time" is especially important. But even with 
the best of intentions the stitch will sometimes be dropped. 
Frost leaves the ground in excellent condition in spring, 
loose and easily tilled. If the cultivator and hoes can be 
started at once, and kept going, all will go well. Unfor- 
tunately this soil condition is altogether too brief. Spring 
rains, winds and sun soon change it. Often the ground is 
not dry enough to work before the change has taken place. 
Any good cultivator will do the work if it can be started 
in time, but if delayed too long even a plow may be neces- 
sary. This is undesirable, for even as shallow a furrow as 
can be turned is likely to prove injurious, especially among 
the groselles, where deep cultivation is always to be 
avoided. The use of cover-crops may necessitate more 
vigorous methods in the spring cultivation than would be 
needed otherwise. In soils which are easily worked, a 
scuffle hoe may do the work among the plants more 
rapidly than an ordinary hoe. 

Maturity of cane and winter hardiness do not seem to 
be coordinate among bush-fruits. Hence the common 
advice to cease tillage in midsummer in order to ripen 



Management of the Land 15 

wood-growth is at least open to question. Canes which 
spring up late in the season, and which apparently go into 
winter immature, will often come through green to the 
tip, while large and apparently mature canes will be 
seriously injured. Much depends on climate, locality and 
season. In semi-arid climates, like that of the plains, 
there is little danger of inducing too late fall growth by 
continuous tillage. Lack of soil moisture is a greater 
menace. Plants there often suffer from winter drought. 
The writer found that continuous cultivation gave good 
results in Nebraska. Some definite, careful experimenta- 
tion is needed to determine what conditions and methods 
of treatment are needed to insure least injury in winter. 

Mulching to replace tillage is often suggested. It is a 
practice which is to be commended under some condi- 
tions, but those conditions are exceptional rather than 
general. It is especially adapted to moist soils in regions 
of abundant rainfall. In the home-garden, where the 
plot may be small and inconvenient to cultivate or where 
there is no horse available with which to do the work, it 
may be the best plan. In field culture the soil mulch is 
generally the best. On any large scale, mulching is ex- 
pensive. It is often difficult to obtain material and it 
takes time to apply it. Mulching is thought to induce 
surface rooting of the plants. Such roots may be quickly 
injured if the mulch is allowed to disappear, and may 
suffer more in time of severe drought. It is thought that 
its practice will give more satisfactory results with cur- 
rants and gooseberries than with other bush-fruits. Their 
rooting habit seems to be shallow and they are easily in- 
jured by deep cultivation. 



16 Bush-Fruits 

Some commercial growers owning rich soils in moist 
climates have found mulching desirable, especially in the 
later years of a plantation's life. The mulch is usually 
obtained by seeding the land to clover, which is mowed 
and left on the ground. A practice at one time, and per- 
haps still in use, was to grow clover on other land, to be 
cut and spread along the rows, tillage being kept up in the 
spaces between. 

TILLAGE TOOLS 

Few special tools are needed in the bush-fruit plantation. 
The cultivator is the most important implement. Any 
kind which will thoroughly loosen the soil and leave the 
surface level will answer the purpose. It should be one 
which will do good work when widely spread. With full- 
grown bushes it is impossible to do good work except with 
a wide tool which can run beneath the branches. For 
suckering varieties, a tool with teeth which are square on 
the end is desirable. Such teeth will cut many suckers 
beneath the surface where ordinary teeth will dodge them. 
They are also useful in cutting off Canada thistles and 
other deep-rooted plants which often escape. In soil 
which is free from stones it is possible to use knives or 
cutting blades of steel which can be made by a blacksmith 
and attached to an ordinary cultivator. 

For working under large and spreading plants, the 
scuffle hoe, already mentioned, is a useful tool. Those on 
the market, especially the crescent scuffle hoe, answer 
the purpose well. A home-made device, designed for a 
similar purpose is illustrated in Fig. 1. It was made by 



Pruning 17 

riveting a piece of heavy scythe to the outer tines of an 
old fork. 

Two devices for the horse which does the cultivating 
are worth mentioning in this connection. 
One is a wire muzzle which can be slipped 
over the nose and buckled to the bit-ring. 
Most horses are fond of the canes and 
will be constantly nipping them, both to 
the detriment of the plants and of their 
work. This device will prevent that. 
Tying an old grain-sack with the bottom 
cut off over the nose will accomplish the 
same object but is rather uncomfortable 
for the horse in warm weather. 

A leather apron to protect his breast 
from the thorns is also a good thing to 
use. The horse needs to be kept close to Fl m a de scarife^or 
one row so that the cultivator will reach scraper. 
under the bushes, and this apron will make it easier to 
keep him there. 

PRUNING 

The old canes of raspberries and blackberries are best 
removed and burned as soon as fruiting is over. Any 
insects which may be at work in them are thus destroyed. 
The canes can be more easily cut at that time, also, for 
they are still soft, while by spring they become dry and 
woody. Removing the canes at this time also offers a 
good opportunity to clean up the plantation and cultivate 
close to the bushes. The fruiting habit of the groselles is 




18 



Bush-Fruits 



different from that of the brambles, since the branches 
live from year to year. Yet a somewhat similar principle 
of renewing the fruiting wood may be followed with ad- 
vantage. Young wood bears the finest and largest fruit. 
Hence it is better to cut out the older wood from year to 
year, allowing the younger shoots to take its place. This 
is better than cutting off the ends of the shoots, for that 
induces additional branching, with a dense top-heavy 
growth. 

Different implements are used for cutting out the old 
wood. For currants and gooseberries, long-handled 
pruning-shears are probably best. For brambles, when the 

canes are still green, a bush- 
scythe, corn-cutter or some 
form of hooked knife in a long 
handle is more convenient. A 
good tool of this kind can be 
made from a flat file, bent and 
flattened, then driven into a 
shovel or manure-fork handle, 
as shown in Fig. 2. The heel of 
an old scythe can be used for a 
similar purpose. A spud simi- 
lar to that shown in Fig. 3 is 
sometimes useful in cutting out 
young canes or in cutting off young suckers. It may also 
be used in putting down tips of black raspberries. 

A special rake for gathering up the prunings has been 
recommended by some growers. It consists of a head- 
piece of 4 x 4 timber, about 5 feet long. Into this are 
fastened seven teeth of %-inch round iron, 18 inches 




Fig. 2. 
Pruning-hook 



Fig. 3. 
Pruning-spud. 



Staking and Trellising 19 

long. Poles at right angles to the teeth serve for shafts 
and a bow is attached to the head-piece for handling it. 
By means of such a tool the canes can readily be gathered 
into piles in the rows, from whence they can be loaded on 
a hay-rack and drawn away. Gathering them by hand 
is slow and expensive work. 

For the spring pruning of brambles, which consists 
chiefly of cutting back the laterals, light, quick and easy- 
working shears are needed. If the canes are not too large 
and dry, a pair of sheep-shears works well. For nipping 
back the new growth in summer a long-bladed knife or 
sickle with a keen edge will be found convenient, especially 
on young bushes. On older plants these new shoots are 
shielded by the older canes so that they are not so readily 
reached with a stroke of the knife. Sheep-shears or the 
thumb and finger are better under those conditions. 

It is best to go over the plantation at several different 
times if the pinching-back plan is followed. This ought 
to be done when the shoots reach the right height. If 
allowed to grow taller, then cut back, the laterals do 
not push forth so vigorously. If only the tip is removed 
from a tall shoot, the result will be a top-heavy bush which 
will not hold up its fruit well. 1 

STAKING AND TRELLISING 

Many home growers, and in some localities even com- 
mercial growers, believe it profitable to use stakes or 
trellises of some sort to support the plants of different 

1 For full discussion of the principles and practice of pruning, con- 
sult " The Pruning-Manual " by L. H. Bailey. 



20 Bush-Fruits 

brambles. With dewberries this is almost essential if 
cultivation is to be given. With the other kinds it is some- 
times desirable. Various methods are employed. When 
the plants are grown in hills a stake at each hill, to which 
the canes are loosely tied, is the plan followed. If grown 
in hedge-rows, posts are set along the row, to which one 
or more wires are fastened. If a single wire is used, the 
canes are tied to this. Another plan, which does away 
with the labor of tying, is to nail cross-pieces to these 
posts and fasten two wires to these pieces, about eighteen 
inches apart. The shoots are allowed to grow up between 
the two wires and are supported by them as they droop 
outward. The height of these wires should be such as to 
bring them about to the branching-point of the canes. A 
method in vogue in the Hudson River Valley, as described 
later, is to hinge this trellis to short posts in the ground, 
supporting it by braces, so that the whole can be laid upon 
the ground and the plants covered for winter protection. 
Trellising methods are shown in Plates I and V. 

WINTER-KILLING 

The hardiness of the varieties which he cultivates is a 
point of great importance to the grower. To determine 
what constitutes hardiness is not easy. Neither is it defi- 
nitely known what method of treatment is best adapted 
to prevent winter injury. Conditions of season and of 
growth undoubtedly affect the result in great measure. 
Disease or excessive summer heat may so weaken plants 
that they are unable to withstand the most favorable 
winter. Strong healthy plants, on the Other hand, will 



Winter-killing 21 

often endure the most trying winters unhurt. Raspberry- 
plants which the writer once removed to a forcing-house 
in the fall of the year showed all the ordinary symptoms 
of winter-killing, when starting into growth under glass. 
Yet these plants had experienced little cold; just enough 
so that a ball of earth could be taken up and moved with 
them to the house. 

A current belief is that plants endure the winter better 
after a comparatively dry fall, favoring a slow, well- 
ripened growth of wood. The validity of this theory is 
not established, for slender canes, produced during the 
latter part of the season, often winter-kill less than those 
of the whole season's growth. This fact does not warrant 
the assertion that immature canes are. hardier, for canes 
produced late are smaller, and may make firmer and better 
wood than those of earlier and more vigorous growth. 
Some successful berry-growers follow a practice directly 
opposed to this theory, for they believe in thorough and 
frequent cultivation up to the time of frost. This favors 
a late fall growth, producing some wood, at least, which 
cannot be well ripened when winter sets in. 

Winter protection is an essential feature of berry- 
growing in many localities. Many growers find the prac- 
tice profitable even where it is not essential. The in- 
creased yield, even in mild climates, may more than repay 
the cost of protection. A crop of fruit is thereby assured, 
even though the winter prove an unusually trying one. 

Different methods are employed for laying-down the 
canes. A wagon is sometimes driven over the rows so 
that the axle shall bend the plants all in one direction. If 
mulch of any kind is used for covering, it may be loaded 



22 Bush-Fruits 

on the wagon and applied at the same time. A part of the 
row is sometimes bent over with a fence-rail, which is 
left on the plants to hold them down. 

A simple and practical method followed in Minnesota, 
where protection is essential, is described by Kirkpatrick * 
as follows: 

"Two men are required to do the work rightly. Facing 
to the north end of the row, one takes a spading-forkful 
of earth from the north side of the hill. The other man, 
with an ordinary pitchfork, pushes the canes to the ground. 
Planting the foot against the base of the canes and 
pushing at the same time is advised. This causes most of 
the bending to occur in the root, and often prevents break- 
ing the cane. When bent, the canes are pinned down with 
the pitchfork while the other man throws on them a few 
forkfuls of soil, to hold them in place. Later, a complete 
covering with soil, to a depth of three or four inches, 
should be made. . . . Two men can do the work well 
and rapidly. Trash or weeds mixed with this covering, 
or under it, are not desirable; for they afford a harboring- 
place for mice, which may injure the canes. 

"A machine requiring four horses has been planned to 
do this work. While it covers them nicely, it has the fault 
of breaking very many canes, and for that reason is not 
extensively used. 

"The covering should be removed with a round-tined 
fork in the spring, when the ground has become dry and 
settled. Some of the earth is scratched off, and the canes 
lifted to a slanting position with the fork. Many growers 
leave the canes slanting as far as possible, and believe it 
1 Minnesota Farmers' Library, Extension Bulletin No. 16. 



Winter-killing 23 . 

beneficial; otherwise they are carefully drawn up and tied 
or supported, as before directed. The earth used for 
covering is worked back into its original position by the 
first cultivation. 

" The work of laying down can be done at any time after 
growth stops in the fall, but before the ground freezes. 
It may even be done while the plants are yet in full leaf, 
without injury, if conditions are favorable, but this is not 
to be recommended. The time of lifting them in spring is 
of greater importance. A plant which has been covered 
during the winter is much more tender than one which has 
been exposed to the weather. If lifted too early, and severe 
weather follows, they are likely to suffer even more than if 
left exposed during the entire winter. If left too late, 
growth may begin while they are still covered, rendering 
them sensitive to even light frosts when exposed. A few 
days of mild weather following the uncovering is desir- 
able. The cost of this protection is not excessive. In 
Wisconsin, where much of it is done, the cost of laying- 
down blackberries and lifting them again in spring has 
been estimated at about $5 an acre." 

Bailey writes 1 as follows on this subject: "Blackberries 
and raspberries are extensively laid down in cold climates, 
and it may be well to relate the method here for the benefit 
of those who occupy bleak locations. Late in fall, the 
bushes are tipped over and covered. Three men are 
generally employed to perform this labor. One man goes 
ahead with a long-handled round-pointed shovel and digs 
the earth away six inches deep from under the roots. The 
second man has a six-tined or four-tined fork which he 
1 "Principles of Fruit-G rowing," Revised Ed., p. 257. 



24 Bush-Fruits 

thrusts against the plant a foot or so above the ground, 
and by pushing on the fork and stamping against the 
roots with the foot, the plant is laid over in the direction 
from which the earth was removed. The third man now 
covers the plant with earth or marsh hay. Earth is 
mostly used, and if the variety is tender the whole bush 
is covered two or three inches deep. Hardy varieties may 
be held down by throwing a few shovelfuls of earth on 
the tops of the canes, thus allowing the snow to fill in 
amongst the tops. If the grower lives in a locality where 
late spring frosts are not feared, the bushes should be 
raised early in the spring; but if frosts are anticipated, they 
may be left under cover until corn-planting time. If the 
buds become large and are bleached white under cover, 
they will suffer when exposed to the atmosphere; and one 
must watch the bushes in spring, and raise them before 
the growth starts. This method of laying down black- 
berry plants costs less than $15 an acre, and the slight 
breaking of the roots is no disadvantage. Some growers 
dig the earth away on both sides of the row, and still others 
bend over the canes without any digging. Whatever 
method is employed, the operator must be careful not to 
crack or split the canes. The method may be varied 
with different varieties, for some bear stiffer canes than 
others." 

The same author writes l again as follows: "The tops 
of plants may be laid down for the winter. Fig. 4 shows a 
method of laying down blackberries as practiced in the 
Hudson River Valley. The plants were tied to a trellis, 
as the method is in that country, two wires having 
1 " Manual of Gardening," p. 138. 



Winter-killing 



25 




Fig. 4, 



Laying down trellis-grown black- 
berries. 



been run on either side of the row. The posts are hinged 

by a pivot to a short post, and are held in position by 

a brace. The entire trellis is then laid down upon the 

approach of winter, as shown in the illustration. The 

blackberry tops are so strong that they hold the wires up 

from the ground, even 

when the trellis is laid 

down. To hold the 

wires close to the earth, 

stakes are thrust over 

them in a slanting 

position. The snow 

that drifts through the 

plants ordinarily affords 

sufficient protection for 

plants which are as 

hardy as grapes and berries. In fact, the plants may be 

uninjured even without cover, since, in their prostrate 

position, they escape the cold and drying winds." 

Severe cold is not the only cause of winter-killing. Other 
weather conditions play an important part. In Nebraska, 
red raspberries and blackberries are commonly killed to 
the ground if left unprotected, and black-caps fare only 
slightly better. Yet the climate is no colder than in New 
York or Pennsylvania, where protection is rarely given. 
During one winter in Nebraska, the mercury fell below 
zero but once, and then only five degrees below, yet un- 
protected canes were entirely killed. Young plants of 
Taylor blackberry were uniformly killed to the ground 
during that winter. Plants in adjoining rows, of the same 
age and similar in other respects, were laid down and cov- 



26 Bush-Fruits 

ered. These came through in perfect condition, green to 
the tips. 

The following winter was much colder, but the pre- 
ceding summer and autumn were favorable, with plenty 
of rain. The plants, therefore, went into winter quarters 
with a good supply of moisture in the ground. Both 
raspberry and blackberry plants came through that winter 
in good condition without protection, although much 
lower temperatures prevailed than during the preceding 
winter. Drought is more disastrous than cold in Nebraska. 
Excessive, as well as deficient moisture, may contribute 
to winter injury. In the moist climate of the New England 
coast, where moisture is seldom deficient, and usually 
excessive, winter-killing is likewise common. 

PROPAGATION 1 

The ordinary methods of propagation are simple, con- 
sisting in some form of division or continuation of the 
parent plant. Tips, suckers, or cuttings are used, accord- 
ing to the habit of the species. These methods will be 
discussed tater under each individual fruit. 

Reproduction from seeds must be employed if new 
varieties are to be obtained. This does not concern the 
practical grower, but for the benefit of the inexperienced 
devotee of these fruits, who may wish to try his luck in 
this lottery of reproduction, a method of handling is here 
given. Growing plants from seeds is a slow process, and in 
most cases the offspring will show no qualities superior 

1 For extended discussions of propagation of plants, see Bailey, 
"The Nursery-Book." 



Propagation 27 

to the parent, or to other varieties already in culti- 
vation. 

When the fruit is thoroughly ripe the seeds should be 
washed out of the pulp in water, and may then be sown 
at once, or first dried, like other seeds, and sown later. 
There is reason to believe that a larger proportion of the 
seeds will germinate the first spring after sowing if put in 
the soil at once, than if dried and kept some time before 
sowing. By the latter method most of them remain dor- 
mant during one whole season, germinating the second 
spring. Unless they are to be sown in very large quanti- 
ties, gardeners' flats, about two feet square and five or 
six inches deep, will be found most convenient. The soil 
used should be rather light and porous, one which will 
not bake nor pack hard. The seed may be sown in rows 
two or three inches apart, or broadcast over the surface 
of the ground. Cover lightly, about one-fourth of an 
inch deep. The boxes can then be put outside in a pro- 
tected, shady place, and left till the seeds germinate. 
If the seeds are the product of crosses or particularly 
choice selections, so that they need to be kept pure, the 
flat should be covered with a fine screen to prevent the 
possibility of birds dropping other seeds into the same 
box, as might easily happen, especially if the box has been 
placed under trees to secure the desired shade. The only 
attention required from this time on is to see that the soil 
is not allowed to dry out enough to injure the germinating 
power of the seeds. Weeds should also be pulled out as 
they appear. As soon as the plants are strong enough to 
bear handling, they should be potted off or reset in other 
flats, putting them two or three inches apart each way. 



28 Bush-Fruits 

The flats or pots in which these young plants are growing 
should be well plunged in the soil to avoid drying out. 
This is of especial importance in getting the plants through 
the winter safely, for lack of moisture in winter is as de- 
structive to plant life as lack of moisture in summer. After 
one season's growth the plants may be strong enough to 
be set in the open ground, but they need mellow, well- 
prepared soil and careful attention, for most of them will 
still be small and weak. 

THINNING THE FRUIT 

Thinning is essential with all fruits, at times, if best 
results are to be secured. Berries may be thinned by clip- 
ping off clusters or portions of clusters, but such a process 
is of interest only to the novice, or to the exhibitor, who 
may wish a few unusually fine specimens. Thinning is of 
importance to the commercial grower, but he accomplishes 
his object in a much simpler way. His thinning is done 
at the annual spring pruning, by leaving more or less 
fruit-bearing wood. This is important and should be 
kept constantly in mind at the time of pruning. Judgment 
and experience are both essential if the work is to be prop- 
erly done. If the right amount of wood is left, no further 
thinning will be needed. 

FORCING BUSH-FRUITS 

The wealthy grower, who wishes to procure things out 
of season, regardless of cost, will find it possible to grow 
bush-fruits under glass if he wishes to do so. Young 
plants of raspberries and blackberries can be started in 



Suggestions on Picking 29 

boxes or large pots early in spring in order to become well 
established before fall. At any time after freezing weather 
has come they can be transferred to the forcing-house. A 
limited trial made some years ago indicated that a com- 
paratively high temperature and artificial pollination are 
essential. 

SUGGESTIONS ON PICKING 

Picking should not be done when the fruit is wet, if it 
is possible to avoid it. Wet fruit will mold quickly, es- 
pecially in damp weather, and is likely to reach the con- 
sumer in very bad condition. The filled baskets should 
not be allowed to stand in the sun. Gooseberries es- 
pecially, are very quickly injured. Exposure to the sun 
even for a short time on a hot day will change their color, 
giving them a cooked appearance and seriously injuring 
their market qualities. The baskets should be promptly 
taken to a cool shady place, and from there to the market 
and the consumer, with the least possible delay. Free 
access of air is usually considered important, but if the 
fruit is perfectly dry when picked, and the air dry as well, 
this is unimportant and sometimes even undesirable. 
Under such conditions fruit will remain much brighter 
and fresher if shut up fairly close. A spring wagon of 
some kind is needed in hauling. What this is will depend 
on the amount to be handled. For large quantities bolster 
springs for the ordinary farm wagon, or some special form 
of truck wagon, will be needed. Good roads over which 
to travel are also a great help in getting the fruit to market 
in the proper condition. 

Systematic records showing the number of quarts picked 



30 Bush-Fruits 

by each picker are essential, with a business of any consid- 
erable extent. Several methods are in use. Perhaps the 
simplest is the use of printed tickets bearing numbers. 
These are given to the picker as the berries are brought in. 
These can be surrendered when the day's picking is over 
and the total number credited to the picker's account. 
These are more convenient for the grower than for the 
pickers, since many of them will have no convenient place 
to carry the tickets while at work, and some will be lost. 
This loss falls on the picker, since the grower can only 
redeem the tickets which are returned. 

A method which avoids this difficulty is to use tags on 
which are printed numbers of various denominations. 
The picker's name is written on one of these cards, which 
is fastened to the clothing at some convenient place. 
When fruit is brought in the card is punched to indicate 
the number of quarts, the total number being credited at 
the end of the day, as before. The cards may be kept by 
the pickers as vouchers of their own, if they wish to do so. 

Clean picking is an essential part bf the work, but dif- 
ficult to secure. There must be a careful assignment to 
rows and the pickers must be held rigidly to the rows given 
them. Even then the temptation to take the finest and 
most easily picked fruit from the adjoining row, when 
opportunity offers, may cause trouble. With a number of 
pickers at work, a careful foreman must be almost con- 
stantly in the field, to go over the work frequently and 
see that it is well done. 

A simple method of holding the baskets to permit the 
use of both hands in picking is in common use in the berry- 
fields of New York state. A string or small rope, or better 



Packages and Marketing 31 

yet a flat piece of tape, is run through the corners of the 
basket underneath the rim, then around the body and 
back around the outside of the basket and tied. Extra 
baskets are placed in this one and the outer string slipped 
up to hold the upper ones in place until filled. It is a 
very simple expedient but helps greatly in the speed of 
picking. Women pickers sometimes accomplish the same 
purpose by fastening their aprons to the basket. 

Two cents a quart is the common price paid for picking 
berries, but this is not a fair compensation. In the best 
of the picking this is often more than the work is worth, 
while at the end of the season, when the berries are small 
and scattering, it is not enough. Some system of adjust- 
ment is important. Excuses multiply wonderfully as the 
picking begins to fail, unless this is done. Pickers dis- 
appear and the burden of this more tedious part of the 
work falls on the most conscientious. A stipulation that 
only those who continue to the end of the season shall 
receive two cents a quart, others one and one-half cents, 
helps to some extent. Perhaps a better way is to fix the 
price for each day's picking, according to the character 
of the work. Even this plan is not easily worked out, and 
causes some confusion. The price for red raspberries is 
sometimes three cents per quart. 

PACKAGES AND MARKETING 

The evolution of the fruit package would form an in- 
teresting study. Formerly, home-made crates were much 
in use. The baskets were even often purchased in the 
flat and nailed up at home. The manufacturer, with his 



32 



Bush-Fruits 



machines, now does the work so much more quickly that 
the grower no longer thinks of doing it at home. As the 
package goes with the fruit so universally, quality is of 
minor importance, except in so far as it may influence 
appearance. The standard thirty-two-quart crate is now 
most generally used. Baskets holding a full measure dry 
quart have come to be the prevailing style. It is to be 
hoped that the day of short baskets has gone, never to 
reappear. Legislative enactment in many states has 
helped to bring about greater uniformity. For bush-fruits, 
care should be taken to secure a basket which does not 
have too wide an opening at the corners. 

Raspberries, especially the red varieties, do not carry 
well in large packages. Pint baskets are therefore most 
generally used for them, unless it be for the near-by home 




I? ;■. 



Fig. 5. Berry-stand on legs. 




Fig. 6. Eight-quart picking 
basket. 



market. Different shapes are to be secured but they are 
so made as to fit into the ordinary sized berry crate. Cur- 
rants and gooseberries are sometimes handled in grape 
baskets with advantage. The demands of the particular 
market usually govern the choice of package. 

Picking-stands or carriers, holding from four to eight 
quart baskets, are a necessary part of the field equipment 
in gathering the fruit. Different forms are in use, some 



Cold Storage 33 

having legs and some without. For bush-fruits, the flat- 
bottomed picking basket holding eight quart baskets is 
probably as satisfactory as any. These are well-made and 
durable and readily obtained from the fruit package dealers. 
Figs. 5 and 6 illustrate two of the most common kinds 
in use. Other forms are described in Bailey's "Principles 
of Fruit-growing." 

COLD STORAGE 

Berries, from their nature, are not well adapted to being 
kept in cold storage, yet experiments made by the United 
States Department of Agriculture l indicate that they 
may be kept for short periods of time with advantage 
under certain conditions. They may be stored until the 
next morning, or even for two or three days, to tide over 
a glutted market. Some canneries also find cold storage 
useful to help over the rush season. The fruit may even 
be stored for weeks and months for bakers' and confec- 
tioners' use by keeping it in a frozen condition. 

Firm fruit of medium size, grown on soil not too moist 
nor too rich, keeps best. Favorable weather at ripening 
time also helps. The fruit should be well matured but 
still firm when packed, and should be handled quickly 
and carefully. For temporary storage a temperature of 
36° to 40° Fahr. will be satisfactory, although 32° is 
better. If to be stored a week or more 30° to 32° is best. 
When frozen for long keeping 5° to 12° is usual. Such 
fruit is suitable for pies and similar uses. Wrapping the 
baskets in thin, impervious paper helps to retain the bright 
1 Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 108. 



34 Bush-Fruits 

color of the fruit and to prevent the absorption of storage- 
house odors and the appearance of mold. Red raspberries 
may be kept two or three days, black raspberries three to 
five days, blackberries seven to ten days and currants 
two to three weeks. When removed from storage rasp- 
berries begin to break down in ten to twelve hours, cur- 
rants not quite so quickly. 

METHODS OF CROSSING BERRIES 

The history of horticulture is conspicuous evidence of 
the fact that careful, systematic plant-breeding has 
played but a small part in its development. Animal- 
breeders have long recognized the necessity of working 
along definite lines, with clear-cut aims in view. Horti- 
culturists have for the most part been content to take 
what they found, and wait for something better. In the 
history of American varieties of fruits, such phrases as 
"a chance seedling," " found growing," and the like, are 
of very common occurrence. There is good reason for 
this in the fact that the rewards for systematic work in 
plant-breeding have not been sufficient to repay the effort. 
Results are uncertain, and often disappointing. If suc- 
cessful the world reaps the benefit, rather than the breeder. 
Yet there is no other way to make sure and definite prog- 
ress. The more definite the aim, and the more clearly the 
scientific principles underlying the problems of plant- 
breeding are kept in mind, the more certain will be the 
results. 1 

1 These principles are fully discussed in Bailey's "Plant-Breeding;" 
latest edition is by Bailey & Gilbert. 



Methods of Crossing Berries 35 

The terms crossing and hybridizing may sound very 
scientific to the novitiate, and he may think that the 
operations lie within a field beyond his reach. Yet there 
is nothing particularly difficult about the operation. It 
is, for the most part, slow and delicate work, and requires 
great care to insure purity of results, if an accurate record 
of what is accomplished is desired. We have no right to 
assert that a plant is a cross unless we know beyond ques- 
tion that no other pollen than that of a given parent 
reached the stigma of the flower from which the seed was 
developed. The mere fact that pollen of a given variety 
has been applied to the stigma of another variety is no 
evidence that crossing has taken place. 

The methods of crossing vary with the character and 
structure of the flower in question, but the essential fea- 
ture is the same in all cases. The pollen of the flower 
which is to serve as the female parent must be carefully 
and completely removed before it ripens, then the flower 
must be carefully covered until the stigma is ready to 
receive pollen and admit of fecundation. The flowers of 
the male parent should also be carefully covered before 
opening, to prevent the admixture of pollen from any 
other plants. At the proper time this pollen is conveyed 
to the stigma of the protected flower on the female plant, 
and the flower again covered until it has reached such a 
stage that fecundation is no longer possible. If properly 
fertilized by the pollen applied, the stigma very soon 
withers, but if not, it may remain in a receptive condition 
for several days. 

In crossing brambles or groselles, select a cluster which 
has several buds nearly ready to open, if such a one is to 



36 Bush-Fruits 

be found. Cut off all younger buds, all which have already 
begun to open, all flowers and all fruit which has already 
set, leaving only the few unopened buds which are of 
about the same age. The next step is to remove all 
stamens from these buds. As the number of stamens is 
large, to remove each one separately would be a tedious 
task. Fortunately, in the rose and saxifrage families, to 
which these fruits belong, the stamens are borne on the 
calyx. This enables us to get rid of them all by simply 
cutting away the calyx. This can be conveniently done 
either with fine, sharp-pointed scissors, or with a spatula 
made from a pin stuck in the end of a stick, then flattened 
and sharpened at the edges. Turn the bud 
(Fig. 7) bottom side up, and cut a circle around 
the stem not far from it. The whole calyx 
will then come away, taking the stamens with 
it. After all the buds have been thus treated, 
p. 7 care being taken that no anthers are left, the 
Raspberry cluster is covered with a paper sack. Half or 
to emascu- quarter-pound grocers' sacks answer the pur- 
pose well. If the open end of the bag is 
moistened, the paper can be pressed more closely about 
the stem. Some flat material is best for tying, raffia 
being most convenient if at hand. One or more clus- 
ters on the variety which is to be used as the male par- 
ent should be covered in the same way, in order to have 
pure pollen to apply at the right time. When first emascu- 
lated, a raspberry bud will have much the appearance 
shown at left in Fig. 8, but usually in about two days, in 
warm weather, it will have developed far enough to be 
ready for pollination. It will then have the appearance 





Methods of Crossing Berries 37 

seen at the center in Fig. 8; the styles will be extended 
and spreading, and the stigmas will have a sticky look, in- 
dicating that they are in a receptive condition. Black- 
berries often require several days 
to sufficiently develop after 
emasculation, especially late in 
the season, if the weather is 
cool. 

When the stigmas are ready, Fig. 8. Raspberry crossing. 
uncover the cluster from which htier^^totmn^: 
the pollen is to be obtained, Right, result of incomplete 

i ■, ! ,. .... fecundation. 

select a blossom from which it 

dusts out freely, and apply it to the ones to be ferti- 
lized. The pollen may be collected and applied with a 
spatula or camel's-hair brush, but if in the right condi- 
tion, applying the flower direct is the simplest way. The 
pollinated cluster must then be at once covered, as before, 
and left for a week or ten days. At the end of that time, 
if all the stigmas have shriveled away, the paper sack may 
be replaced by one of mosquito netting, which will admit 
light and air, but still protect the fruit from birds and 
boys. 

In case of the brambles, the result will often be an imper- 
fect berry. Only a few of the akenes are likely to be fecun- 
dated, and there may not be enough to fill out all the space 
on the receptacle. Such a fruit is shown at the right in 
Fig. 8. When the fruit is ripe the seeds should be planted 
and cared for as heretofore directed for growing plants 
from seed, except that especial care should be used in all 
the operations to avoid mixture, or injury to seeds, or 
young plants. Crossing requires much time, and accidents 



38 Bush-Fruits 

are liable to occur all along the line, so that the result of 
a summer's work may be, in the end, only a few plants, 
most or all of which are worthless. Yet persistent effort 
in this line should be encouraged, and in time the results 
are likely to repay all the attempts made. 

While located in Rhode Island, the writer grew many 
raspberry seedlings which were obtained by definite 
methods of crossing. He found that as a rule the seedlings 
of a given cross showed well-defined tendencies in certain 
directions. The greater number resembled each other 
rather closely. They were usually intermediate in char- 
acter between the two parents, some more closely resem- 
bling one parent and some the other. Here and there a 
plant would show enough variation to be worthy of note. 
Of the hundreds grown only a very few gave sufficient 
promise to make their further propagation seem desirable. 
Yet this is just the line which must be followed if real 
progress is to be made. It is not the kind of work to bring 
popular approval or upon which claims for increased ap- 
propriations can safely be based. It should be undertaken 
only by those who have persistency of purpose and who can 
hope to continue it for many years. Long-continued effort, 
wisely applied, building upon what has already been ac- 
complished, will in time bring results of real value, but is 
not likely to win much loud acclaim for the worker. He 
must be content to discard hundreds of his productions, 
for each one of value. It requires courage to do this. 
Each seedling is a distinct variety and the one plant the 
only one of its kind in existence. 

Work in breeding raspberries has been carried on for a 
number of years at the Geneva, New York, Experiment 



Methods of Crossing Berries 39 

station with interesting results. A number of valuable 
varieties have also been secured. Their work has estab- 
lished beyond question the hybrid origin of the purple- 
cane type, Rubus neglectus. Pure seedlings of Columbian, 
a variety of this class, reproduced the characters of the 
parent much more nearly than was to have been expected. 
All were purple in color and none propagated by suckers. 
In hybrids produced by crossing two black-caps with a 
red raspberry the seedlings in one case were all purple, 
while in the other, 10 yellows appeared among the 289 
seedlings. Color is apparently a Mendellian character. 
Some varieties of black-caps are evidently pure black, 
while others carry yellow as a recessive character. The 
same principle seems to hold with red varieties also. A 
number of seedlings of Cumberland were strictly dwarf 
in character. These were quite different from normal 
plants which lacked vigor. The nodes were as numerous 
as usual but many of them were much shorter, sometimes 
not over a quarter of an inch long. Many of the leaves 
were small and easily broken from the stem and the canes 
were thickly covered with soft spines. Many of these 
dwarfs were less than a foot in height and the tallest were 
not over two feet. 

A correlation appears to exist between leaf and fruit 
color. Red and purple sorts have a tinge of red on the 
leaves and young canes, which is entirely lacking in yellow 
varieties. 

Hybrids were produced by crossing a red raspberry 
and a blackberry with Rubus odoratus. The resulting 
seedlings from the blackberry were lacking in vigor and 
soon died. Those from the raspberry, however, grew well 



40 Bush-Fruits 

and bloomed freely, their characters leaving no doubt as 
to their hybrid origin. The experiments are reported in 
Bulletin 417 of the Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y., to 
which the reader is referred for a full account of the results. 
Valuable work has also been done at the South Dakota 
Experiment Station in breeding varieties which will endure 
the climate of the northern Plains region. Such lines of 
work are to be commended, for the grower soon learns 
that among the factors which make for success in his 
undertaking, the adaptability of the varieties which he 
plants is of primary importance. 



PART II 

THE BRAMBLES 

CHAPTER II 

THE RED RASPBERRIES 

Three types of fruit are included in this discussion of 
the red raspberry — the foreign or European class, the true 
American reds, and the hybrid or purple-cane group. 
These types are not clearly defined. The American and 
European types are very similar in many respects, while 
the hybrid type includes varieties of nearly all gradations 
between the reds and the black-caps. Typical varieties 
of the first class are Antwerp and Fontenay, of the second, 
Cuthbert, and of the third Shaffer and Columbian. 

SOIL 

The red raspberry is not fastidious as regards soils. 
It can be made to thrive on almost any average land, 
though extremes of any kind are naturally to be avoided. 
An upland, sandy, or clay loam will prove satisfactory if 
well drained. The impression has been general that the 
lighter loams are best, but Wilson found in a study of the 
raspberry industry of New York * that plantations on 
1 Cornell Reading-Courses, Vol. II, No. 36. 
41 



42 Bush-Fruits 

clay loam, although not as numerous as those on other 
soils, gave the heavier yields. 

The moisture-content is more important than the char- 
acter of the soil itself. Wet land will insure partial failure 
at least. On such land the plants will often heave badly 
and suffer much from winter-killing. The growth is 
generally feeble and the outcome unsatisfactory. Yet 
no fruit suffers more quickly from drought at ripening 
time. The demand is, therefore, for a soil which is well 
drained, so that it is never surfeited with water, but it 
must also be retentive of moisture so as to supply the 
plant's needs during the growing season. A liberal supply 
of humus is a great aid in this respect. 

A reasonably fertile soil is desirable. The commercial 
grower is not likely to be troubled by too much fertility 
in his soil. In the home-garden, however, a patch of ground 
may sometimes be chosen which is too rich for best results. 
Ground which has been manured heavily, year after year, 
or which receives the wash from a barn-yard, may con- 
tain too much nitrogen. Under these conditions the 
growth will be rank and the canes tender. Excessive 
winter injury and diminished fruitfulness are the natural 
results. Vigorous growing varieties may thrive better on 
infertile soils than varieties of weaker growth. 

THE SITE AND EXPOSURE 

The cooler and shadier the spot, the finer the berries. 
This holds true with wild and cultivated berries alike. 
If a choice is available, a northern or northeastern exposure 
is therefore to be preferred, but this is not essential and 



Fertilizers 



43 



seldom figures largely in the results of a plantation. A 
windbreak on the side from which the prevailing winds 
come will assist in making conditions more favorable. 
These considerations are much more important in the mid- 
continental regions, which are subject to excessive heat 
and long-continued droughts, than in more favorable 
localities. 

Red raspberries blossom so unevenly that spring frosts 
are less likely to prove serious than with most other fruits. 
Not all of the blossoms are likely to be in condition to be 
injured at any one time. Elevation is therefore of less 
importance, and the better moisture conditions which 
often prevail on lowlands may make such a location pref- 
erable. 



FERTILIZERS 

On productive land, heavy fertilizing of red raspberries 
is unnecessary. Yet the following table compiled by 
Wilson 1 shows that under average field conditions in New 
York fertilizers are beneficial : 



Method . 


Number 
of farms 


Number 
of acres 


Yield 
per acre 
(quarts) 

1,168 
1,527 
1,439 
1,472 


Income 
per acre 


No manure, nor commercial ferti- 


39 
13 
10 
21 


81 
14 
30 
23 


$116.69 


Manure and commercial fertilizer 
Commercial fertilizer only 


176.69 
142.85 
170.50 



When both manure and commercial fertilizers were 
used, they were applied in alternate years. These re- 
1 Cornell Reading-Courses, Vol. II, No. 36. 



44 Bush-Fruits 

suits show that the methods of fertilizing actually em- 
ployed on these farms increased the yield about 311 quarts 
to the acre on the average, and the returns about $46.66. 
From this amount would need to be deducted the cost 
of fertilizer and value of manure, together with the cost 
of application and the cost of picking and marketing the 
additional yield, in order to show the profit obtained. 
The amount left would not be large. Some fields doubt- 
less gave a profit for the materials applied and others not. 
When stable-manure is readily available, it is doubtless 
as satisfactory a fertilizer as can be used on average soils, 
if applied in moderate quantities. Heavy applications 
may induce too much cane-growth, with poorly developed 
fruit-buds. A light dressing of stable-manure, supple- 
mented with mineral elements in the form of chemicals 
is likely to prove most satisfactory. Little nitrogen is 
required. If leguminous cover-crops are used, they alone 
may furnish a sufficient amount. Phosphorus is needed, 
but not in large quantities. Potash may or may not be 
needed. It may be supplied in muriate or wood-ashes. 
Fifty pounds of muriate to the acre, annually, will gener- 
ally be enough. Phosphoric acid may be supplied in 
basic slag, ground bone, acid phosphate or untreated 
rock. Ground bone furnishes some nitrogen and potash 
as well. It is an excellent fertilizer for all fruits, but often 
expensive. Judgment and caution are needed by the com- 
mercial grower in the use of fertilizers. Used wisely they 
may pay a handsome profit, used unwisely they may 
bring serious loss. He alone can determine what is best. 
Let him first give heed to the humus supply of his soil, its 
chemical needs later. 



Propagation 45 

PROPAGATION 

Propagation of the common varieties of red raspberries 
is a simple matter. Most kinds sucker so freely that the 
grower is more concerned with destroying the plants than 
with increasing them. These young plants may be taken 
up and re-set at almost any time during the year. In 
commercial work, where plants are to be shipped, the best 
time is early in spring. The shoots of the previous year 
are then moved, while they are still dormant. This should 
be done early for best results. 

For re-setting on the home grounds, the young shoots 
of the current season may be lifted when six to eight inches 
high, and replanted much as tomato or cabbage plants 
are handled. With ordinary care this practice will prove 
entirely successful and may often give opportunity to 
hasten the time of starting a plantation. If plenty of 
plants are available so that their destruction by summer 
tillage is unimportant, early autumn is an excellent time 
to do the work, the first part of September being pre- 
ferred. The plants are then mature enough to handle 
readily and have time to become well established before 
winter. 

Some of the purple-cane varieties propagate by tips, 
after the manner of black-caps. Others, which throw up 
suckers, do so very sparingly. With these, root-cuttings 
or root injury may be needed. If a root is broken or in- 
jured, it will naturally put out a sucker at that point. 
Cutting or bruising the roots may therefore be desirable 
at times. Root-cuttings, in the manner described for 
blackberries, may be used. These are commonly made 



46 Bush-Fruits 

in autumn. The roots are cut into pieces three or four 
inches long and stored for the winter in sand or moss in a 
cellar. 

PLANTING 

The general discussion regarding soil preparation and 
methods of planting need not be here repeated. The time 
of planting may vary, as above mentioned, depending 
on circumstances, but early spring or early autumn are 
generally to be preferred. The plants, whenever they are 
moved, should be carefully lifted from the soil, so as to 
carry with them some portion of the horizontal root from 
which they sprang. Without care in this regard many will 
be broken off at the point of union with the parent root. 
Such plants have so few lateral roots that they make a 
poor start. 

Rows are commonly placed six feet apart, with the 
plants about three feet apart in the row. Some growers 
prefer a wider space than this, especially with vigorous 
varieties, on strong soil. As the plantation grows older 
the hedge-row widens and sometimes leaves too little 
room for cultivation and picking. If planted in check- 
rows, to be cultivated both ways, five feet apart each 
way is a good distance. A filler system has been sug- 
gested, where it is feasible to check-row and cultivate both 
ways. The idea is to set the plants twice as thick in one 
direction as they are to eventually remain, then tear out 
every other clump after two crops have been borne and 
cultivate both ways. The advantage would be a more 
complete utilization of the land at the beginning. The 
suckering habit of the true reds tends to develop a hedge- 



Pollination 47 

row soon and care must be taken to prevent the plants 
from becoming so thick that they cannot do well. The 
cultivator must be kept running close to keep the row 
from getting too wide. Thinning out the plants left may 
also be necessary at times. 

Partial shade, especially in the hot, dry climates of the 
West, is an advantage to these fruits. This is not easy 
to secure without injury from the roots of the trees which 
produce it. In the home-garden it may be feasible to do 
this at times. It may also prove desirable to plant among 
trees in the home-garden, even though the results are not 
as good as in the open. If land is limited this will make 
it possible to utilize it to better advantage. It may also 
insure better tillage for the trees than they might other- 
wise secure. 

POLLINATION 

The need of planting different varieties together to 
insure proper fecundation of the blossoms is a recognized 
factor in orchard planting. A similar need of interpol- 
lination is sometimes evident among bush-fruits. A 
number of varieties, both of red raspberries and black- 
berries, appear to be partially sterile when planted alone. 
The Cuthbert, our most satisfactory commercial variety, 
bears an abundance of pollen and is apparently fully self- 
fertile. Its blossoming season is also long; it is therefore 
an excellent sort to plant with other reds. It is al- 
ways safe to plant different varieties of the same fruit 
near together. Nothing will be lost and much may be 
gained. 



48 Bush-Fruits 

TILLAGE 

Tillage is important, as elsewhere, to make the ground 
loose and friable, unlock plant-food and diminish evapora- 
tion. In the red raspberry plantation there is the addi- 
tional need of destroying suckers. To this end, a cultiva- 
tor with teeth square on the end instead of pointed, or 
with a knife attachment, as described elsewhere, is use- 
ful. This is assuming that fruit is the object. If plant- 
production were the aim such an implement would not be 
wanted. 

Thorough tillage, coupled with an abundant humus 
supply in the soil, affords the most feasible means within 
the control of the grower of maintaining the moisture 
content of the soil during the fruiting period, when it is 
so much needed. These are better than irrigation, in 
semi-arid regions, and far more easily obtained, under 
most conditions. Late tillage, until time of frost, is per- 
fectly safe with the red raspberry, and gives good results. 
Deep tillage is undesirable, since it breaks more roots, 
thus causing more suckers to spring up. A plow is some- 
times used to cut down the width of the row in older plan- 
tations but is not desirable. If it becomes necessary to 
use it the furrows should be made as shallow as possible. 

PRUNING 

The pruning and training of red raspberries differs 
widely in different localities and among different growers. 
Summer pruning, consisting of pinching back the growing 
cane when young, to induce branching, was formerly in 



Pruning 49 

use. A few growers still practice it but most commercial 
growers do not. 

Pinching back the canes in summer seems to have a 
tendency to increase the number of suckers thrown up, 
which in itself is a disadvantage unless the plantation is 
being run for purposes of propagation. Unless pinched 
low while still very young, the plants do not throw out 
strong branches, like the black-caps, possibly owing to 
the fact that the energy of the plant is more readily di- 
rected in the line of producing suckers than in the line of 
developing branches. The effect of stopping the cane 
after it has reached a height of three feet or more, is only 
to force into growth lateral buds which might better re- 
main dormant until the following spring. As a rule, they 
make only an imperfect development, do not become well 
ripened before growth stops, and are apt to be more or 
less injured by the following winter. 

Both personal experience and the information gathered 
from the experience of others, leads the writer to believe 
that the better way to treat the red raspberry is to allow it 
to grow unmolested during the whole season, merely cut- 
ting the canes back to within three, or in some cases even 
two feet of the ground the following spring. If the canes 
are to be supported by stakes or trellis, as is sometimes 
done in garden culture, they may be left longer, say four, or 
even five feet. Treated in this way, the canes will throw 
out a sufficient number of laterals in spring to produce 
all the fruit which a plant ought to carry. Moreover, 
these branches are vigorous and healthy, and in better 
condition to develop a fine crop of fruit than if produced 
the preceding year, weakened by the winter and then 



50 



Bush-Fruits 



called upon to throw out fruit-bearing shoots. The les- 
sened expense of pruning is an added advantage secured 
by this method of training. 

An exception to this plan may be advisable in case of 
young and vigorous plantations, or with an unusually 
rampant-growing variety. Young plants have not the 
root development to start out so stocky a cane, and nat- 




Fig. 9. A raspberry bush well 
trained. 



Fig. 10. A raspberry bush improperly 
trained. 



urally produce a more slender and comparatively longer 
growth. Allowing such main canes to grow uninterrupt- 
edly, and cutting them back to the desired height the 
following spring, may remove too much of the wood, and 
leave only the weaker and poorly developed buds near the 
base. For this reason some good growers find it an ad- 
vantage to pinch back the plants the first one or two 
years, but not after that. Whenever this is done, the 



Autumn Fruiting 51 

important point to remember is to merely pinch off the 
tip while the plants are young and only a few inches high. 
Six to eighteen inches is better than higher, provided it 
is done when the plant reaches that point, but they should 
never be allowed to grow higher and then be cut back to 
this point. If stopped at this early age, the main cane 
will increase in height somewhat, and will be able to throw 
out. strong and vigorous branches, forming a stocky, self- 
supporting bush, well prepared to endure the winter and 
produce a good crop of fruit the following year. Such a 
bush of the Cuthbert variety is shown in Fig. 9. An 
undesirable form of training is shown in Fig. 10. 

Staking or trellising is sometimes practiced in garden 
culture, and even by commercial growers, in some regions. 
If the hill system, with check rows, is followed, a stake is 
set in the center and the canes loosely tied to this. In the 
row method a wire is strung on posts, to which the canes 
are fastened. A little pamphlet entitled "New Raspberry 
and Blackberry Culture" by J. F. Littooy, of Everett, 
Washington, strongly recommends the latter plan for that 
region. Climate and soil fertility doubtless have much to 
do with the desirability of supports. In the experience 
of many growers in the eastern states, supports are not 
necessary. Where canes grow very tall and vigorous a 
heavier yield can doubtless be obtained by tying them up 
and leaving more wood at the spring pruning. 

AUTUMN FRUITING 

Some varieties of raspberries have a tendency to bear 
fruit in autumn on wood of the current season's growth. 



52 Bush-Fruits 

It has been suggested that removing the regular bearing 
canes in spring would encourage this late-fruiting habit. 
A single experiment was made by the author, many years 
ago, on the grounds of The Cornell University Horticul- 
tural Department. Plants of Fontenay, Cuthbert and 
Shaffer were mowed off with a scythe in the spring, be- 
fore the young canes started. The results were very def- 
inite, but not encouraging. The young canes made a 
vigorous growth, but not a single cluster of flowers ap- 
peared on either the Cuthbert or Shaffer plants. There 
were two or three fine clusters of fruit among the Fontenay 
plants thus treated, but this is one of the European varie- 
ties, which are characterized by more or less continuous 
fruiting throughout the season. Just as good clusters 
were to be found, and apparently as many of them, where 
the plants were treated in the ordinary manner. 

The only advantage in autumn fruiting is the production 
of a small amount of fresh fruit for family use late in the 
season, but this trial seems to show little prospect of in- 
ducing tardy fruiting by means of encouraging a late 
seasonal growth. 

Weather conditions appear to influence this tendency. 
In occasional years the wild red raspberries will bear con- 
siderable fruit in autumn. At times throughout parts 
of northern Pennsylvania, wild berries have even been 
brought into the villages for sale in October. In 1915, a 
very wet season, autumn fruit was abundant. 



Uses 53 



HARVESTING AND MARKETING 

Red raspberries should be picked often, every other day 
if possible. They deteriorate rapidly after ripening, 
whether on the bushes or off. Being a soft berry, easily 
crushed and difficult to ship, they should be started on the 
way to market as soon as possible. The longer they re- 
main after ripening, the softer, duller in color, and poorer 
in quality they become. They are best marketed in pint 
baskets, though the quart basket is often used. The pint 
baskets are oblong in shape and the size is such that the 
ordinary bushel crate will hold sixty of them. Settling 
and crushing from the weight of the fruit itself is largely 
avoided and the fruit reaches the consumer in much better 
condition than when marketed in larger baskets. The fruit 
should not be picked when wet and should be kept in a 
cool well-ventilated place until sent away. A home 
market is best, and except in localities where they are' 
largely grown, is usually at hand. The fruit seems to be a 
universal favorite and is in demand almost everywhere. 

USES 

The red raspberry is essentially a dessert fruit and one 
which should reach the consumer promptly. It is also 
used by canners, and this may afford a good outlet to 
growers rightly located. It can be readily evaporated, 
but this is seldom done. The shrinkage is so great that the 
price at which the dried product must sell in order to 
yield a fair return for the fresh fruit seems high to the pur- 
chaser. A heaping quart basketful of fruit will weigh 



54 Bush-Fruits 

about four ounces when dried, varying somewhat with 
seasons, variety, and the like. Seven or eight pounds of 
dried product to the bushel of fresh fruit is, therefore, all 
that can be expected. Furthermore, the true red varieties 
are dull and unattractive in color, when dried, which is 
unfavorable to their sale. The quality is excellent, but 
appearance counts for more in the sale of goods. 

Varieties of the purple-cane class, like Shaffer and Co- 
lumbian, are much better for evaporating than the true 
reds. The yield is heavier and the quality and flavor are 
excellent. They also possess a much more attractive 
appearance when dried than does the Cuthbert. It would 
seem that under some conditions, evaporating fruit of this 
class might prove profitable, although it is not being 
done to any great extent. As an outlet for surplus fruit 
in times of glutted markets, should such occur, the prac- 
tice of evaporating commends itself if facilities are at 
hand for doing it. To plant even the purple-cane varie 
for evaporating alone would probably be unwise. 

DURATION OF PLANTATIONS 

Red raspberries may be kept in fruit for a number of 
years from the same plantation if it seems wise to do so. 
Wilson says * that eight to ten crops of berries may be 
expected from a patch, provided the plants are given good 
care and are kept free from disease. In a study of results 
obtained on different farms in New York state he found 
that a few plantings ten years old were yielding as heavily 
as the average of those from three to five years old. One 
1 The Cornell Reading-Courses, Vol. II, No. 36. 



Duration of Plantations 55 

plantation of Cuthbert near Seneca Lake in New York 
state is said to be at least thirty-six years old, and is still 
bearing large nice fruit. The practical question is not how 
long can they be made to last, but how long will it pay to 
keep them. Many causes tend to weaken the plants and 
reduce their productiveness as they grow older. If they 
are healthy and vigorous, as they should be, the constant 
increase of suckers soon fills the row so full that they begin 
to suffer from crowding, unless severely thinned. This can 
be done, and should be, but is often neglected. Pulling 
these suckers is considered better than cutting them. This 
is readily done by using heavy leather mittens, but is not 
easy work. As the rows increase in width, grass and weeds 
gain entrance and are not easily dislodged. All this means 
greater expense as the plants grow older. Diseases and 
insects may also become more troublesome, not only re- 
ducing the yield of the plantation itself but serving as 
breeding grounds from which they may spread to other 
fields. 

Considering all these factors, it is often better to replant 
after securing three or four good crops, rather than to 
try to keep the plants longer. The new plot can be started 
with less expense than will be needed to maintain the old 
one. 

Although the plants are persistent, it is not difficult to 
rid a field of them when it is desired to do away with a 
plantation. Cutting the plants close to the ground, fol- 
lowed by deep plowing and thorough surface tillage will 
soon eradicate them. Continuing with any regular ro- 
tation will be all that is needed. 



56 Bush-Fruits 



HARDINESS 

In the eastern states, and probably throughout the 
greater part of the country, red raspberries are less hardy 
than black-caps. According to Kirkpatrick * the reverse 
is true in Minnesota. Some varieties are seldom injured in 
favorable locations in middle latitudes of the United States. 
The most common condition is that the tips are killed 
back somewhat but ordinarily not farther than it would 
be desirable to cut them at pruning time anyway. 

It seems probable that lack of hardiness as frequently 
comes from want of ability in the leaves to endure the 
hot suns of summer as from lack of ability in the canes to 
endure the cold of winter. If by any means the function 
of the foliage during the growing season becomes impaired, 
the vitality of the plant is lessened, and it goes into winter 
poorly prepared to meet the conditions laid upon it during 
that period. Hence it seems but reasonable that lack of 
hardiness, or winter-killing, may result from insect or 
fungous injury inflicted during summer, as well as from 
unfavorable climatic conditions. It is an interesting fact 
that small, late-growing canes generally stand the winter 
better than the more vigorous ones of the whole season's 
growth. Cuthbert canes produced at the Cornell gardens, 
after cutting away all young canes early in July, came 
through the winter in better condition than the earlier, 
undisturbed canes in the other part of the same row 
These later canes were alive to the tip in spring. At the 
time the leaves were opening they were more uniformly 
green and farther advanced than the others. They pro- 
1 Minn. Farmers' Library Extension, Bulletin No. 16. 



Yields 57 

duced fine fruit, but since they are smaller than canes of 
the full season's growth, the yield might be less. One 
Iowa grower reports that in two seasons' trial, blackberry 
canes produced after pulling up all young shoots about 
the last of June, were loaded with fine berries, while older 
canes alongside had but few. Although such canes are 
later it does not necessarily follow that they are immature. 
Starting later, when the conditions do not favor so vigor- 
ous a growth, the wood may be firmer and its vitality 
greater at the beginning of winter than that of the earlier 
canes. 

YIELDS 

The average yield of red raspberries is less than that of 
black-caps, though under exceptional conditions and in 
some localities the reverse may be true. Estimates from 
a number of growers, obtained by the writer a number of 
years ago, gave an average of about 2,200 quarts to the 
acre. Average yields in western New York, as obtained 
by Wilson, were 1,784 quarts in 1909 and 1,351 quarts 
in 1910. The yields in 1909 were based on returns from 
52 acres; those in 1910 on those from 155 acres. The 
average price received a quart was a trifle over nine cents 
in 1909 and something over ten cents in 1910. x Herrick 
and Bennett 2 place the average yield for Colorado at 
about 4,500 quarts an acre, under irrigation, considerably 
higher than that for black-caps. The yields are not only 
smaller, as a rule, but the ripening period is much longer. 
This makes the picking and marketing more expensive, 

1 Cornell Reading-Courses, Vol. II, No. 36. 

2 Colorado Expt. Station, Bulletin No. 171. 



58 Bush-Fruits 

since there are never very many berries ripe at one time. 
The grower must, therefore, receive a considerably higher 
price per quart than for black-caps, or blackberries, if 
they are to prove equally profitable. As with all crops 
the yields are largely dependent upon the care and at- 
tention received. 



NORMAL PROFITS 

Forecasting profits in any undertaking is uncertain. 
So many factors enter into the problem that one can 
never safely predict the outcome. Red raspberries are 
nearly always in good demand. The grower who has a 
home market at hand is reasonably safe in expecting a 
price which will yield a fair profit on a well-grown crop. 
Large markets are much less likely to be glutted with 
reds than with blacks, but their smaller yields and poorer 
shipping qualities make them less desirable for distant 
markets. The cost of production, including rent of land, 
fertilizer, tillage, and the like should not exceed fifty 
dollars an acre. The cost of picking and packages will 
range from two to four cents a quart. At a selling price 
of ten cents a quart to the grower, there should be a fair 
margin of profit in the undertaking. Wilson found in his 
investigations, cited above, that the average gross returns 
to the acre were $162.91 in 1909 and $139.75 in 1910. 

NOTE ON THE HYBRID REDS 

Two classes of plants are really embraced in this hybrid 
group. One of these propagates naturally almost wholly 



Note on the Hybrid Reds 59 

by tips, like the black-caps. This is the true Rubus neg- 
lectus, or Purple Cane type. It is to this class that the 
old Purple Cane, Shaffer, Columbian and others belong. 
These demand the same methods of planting, pruning and 
care as those given to the black-caps. The other class 
propagates chiefly by suckers, but can be made to root 
from the tips with proper care. These are essentially red 
raspberries in character, and demand the same care and 
treatment as red raspberries. Some of them approach 
so closely to the true red raspberries that they might even 
be more properly classed as such than with Rubus neg- 
lectus. To this class belong Philadelphia, Reliance and a 
few others. Caroline is a pinkish yellow berry, belonging 
to this category and thought to be a seedling of Brinckle's 
Orange, fertilized by some cap variety. 

Many of these are excellent for the home-garden, owing 
to their great productiveness and rich flavor. The chief 
objection to them as a market fruit is their dull, unattrac- 
tive color and their poor carrying quality. Some persons 
who cultivate them for market overcome this difficulty, 
in part, by picking them before they are fully ripe and 
while they are yet red. At this time they carry better 
and look better in market. In a home market, there is 
little difficulty in selling the Shaffer or Columbian, when 
fully ripe, dark as they are, when persons come to know 
them. They are among the best raspberries grown, for 
canning purposes, combining something of the flavor of 
both the reds and the blacks. Their color, when cooked, 
is no longer objectionable. 



CHAPTER III 
BLACK RASPBERRIES 

The black-cap raspberry is strictly an American fruit. 
Its culture is comparatively recent, and all the varieties 
grown belong to the same species, Rubus occidentalis, the 
common wild berry of the fields and woodlands. While 
not such a general favorite as the red raspberry, its hardi- 
ness, productiveness, ease of culture and its adaptability 
to the evaporating industry have given it a prominent 
place among our commercial bush-fruits. 

SOIL FOR BLACK-CAPS 

Black-caps succeed on a wide range of soils, but thrive 
best on one which is rich, deep, moist and well drained. 
Sandy or clay loams are preferable. A location where 
water stands for any length of time is never permissible. 
Let the grower who has ever gathered wild black rasp- 
berries recall how luxuriantly they grow in newly-cleared 
land, abounding in leaf-mold, and take a lesson there- 
from. Virgin soil filled with leaf-mold is no longer avail- 
able, but it is possible to greatly add to the humus in the 
soil which is to be used, thereby approximating the condi- 
tions found in the forest clearing. It should be remem- 
bered that humus greatly increases the drought-resisting 
quality of soils, a point of the utmost importance in berry- 

60 



Location 



61 



growing. A soil rich in humus will do much toward sup- 
plying the elements of plant-food needed, by rendering 
available that which is already in the soil and preventing 
its loss. In Kansas, the uplands having a black loam 
with clay subsoil, are reported to give the best results. 
Stony soils may yield good crops, but are even more ex- 
pensive to work than with crops for which the ground is 
plowed every year. 

Wilson found * that in western New York, loam soils 
gave better results than clay, as indicated by the follow- 
ing table: 



Soils 



Acreage 



Yield to the 
acre (quarts) 



Income to the 
acre 



Sandy loam. . 
Gravelly loam 
Clay soils .... 



77.85 
51.08 
10.25 



1,434.50 
1,405.40 
1,266.05 



$106.59 
107.05 
100.83 



LOCATION 



More vigorous growth and larger fruit can be obtained 
from the strong, moist soils of bottom-lands and valleys. 
Such fruit may not quite equal in flavor that grown on 
uplands but is more salable. There is always greater 
danger from frosts and from winter injury in very severe 
weather on low ground, except in the vicinity of large 
bodies of water. A cool, northern exposure, less affected 
by hot summer suns and less subject to drought, is to be 
preferred, though by no means necessary. A closely 
bordered basin is objectionable. Extremes of temperature 
1 Cornell Reading-Courses, Vol. II, No. 36. < 



62 Bush-Fruits 

are greater in such a location. In the bright days of sum- 
mer with the sun pouring its intense rays into such a 
basin, the atmosphere becomes abnormally hot. At night 
the cold air settles into the same basin, with no opportunity 
to drain away, greatly increasing the danger from frosts in 
spring, and subjecting the plants to lower winter temper- 
atures than those which prevail on the higher lands about. 
Steep hillsides are objectionable. Tillage is much more 
difficult on such lands and the loss of fertility and danger 
to the plants from washing during heavy rains are factors 
of importance. 

Location with reference to market is not of so much im- 
'portance with black-caps as with red varieties. The fruit 
is firmer and carries better, hence can be more readily 
shipped or carried longer distances without injury. When 
grown for evaporating purposes this factor is practically 
eliminated. The man far inland, with no railway or other 
public transportation facilities at hand, can compete on 
equal terms with the one who has a large market right at 
hand, except that the latter may supply the fresh market 
so far as conditions warrant, and evaporate only the sur- 
plus. 

FERTILIZERS 

Stable-manure is the most popular fertilizer among 
growers. It is especially suitable for black-caps, for they 
seem to demand heavier feeding than red raspberries or 
blackberries. Strong-growing plants are usually the most 
productive and bear the finest fruit. Even an over-supply 
of nitrogen is not so likely to produce a tender plant which 
suffers from winter-killing. In replies to questions sent to 



Fertilizers 63 

growers some years ago, asking what fertilizer had been 
found most satisfactory, stable-manure was mentioned 
oftener than any other material; wood-ashes was also much 
in favor. The use of chemicals was less common then 
than now and stable-manure would be the material most 
likely to be used. It may not be the most economical, nor 
even the best material to use under all conditions, but it 
does give good results when properly applied. 

One wide-awake grower replied that a Planet Jr. cul- 
tivator proved the best fertilizer with him. This is simply 
a modified version of the old adage that "tillage is man- 
ure," the full truth of which most of us have not yet come 
to appreciate. Such plants as raspberries do not make 
heavy drafts upon the soil. If therefore the physical 
conditions of the soil can be kept right and the chemical 
activities can be augmented, enough plant-food can be 
unlocked from most soils to supply their needs. Tillage 
does both of these and also assists to conserve moisture, 
without which no plant-food can be available, since it can 
only be used by the plant when in solution. 

The quality of ordinary stable-manure is very uncer- 
tain, owing to differences in methods of feeding, and in the 
treatment which the manure receives after it is made. 
It commonly contains an excess of nitrogen. This, though 
by far the most expensive element of plant fertility, and 
one easily lost -by leaching and evaporation, is required 
in only limited quantities in the production of fruit. The 
chances are, therefore, that in the use of large quantities 
of stable-manure this expensive element is wasted. An 
excess of organic nitrogen may also help to deplete the 
soil of potash. When changed to nitric acid it combines 



64 Bush-Fruits 

with potash and other bases which leach away if not taken 
up by plants, thus depleting the soil of basic ingredients. 
The use of less manure, supplemented with chemical? 
containing phosphoric acid and potash, is often wiser. 

According to the analysis of raspberries published from 
Washington x a crop of one hundred bushels of raspberries 
would remove only about six pounds of nitrogen, twenty 
pounds of phosphoric acid and fourteen pounds of potash 
from the soil. This being true, the importance of fertili- 
zers may be easily overestimated. Fifty pounds of nitrate 
of soda or slightly more of dried blood, one hundred and 
fifty pounds of acid phosphate and fifty pounds of muriate 
of potash would more than supply this need. The un- 
avoidable losses in the soil make it necessary to furnish 
more than the plants take away; yet this may serve as a 
suggestion regarding the possible demands. The individ- 
ual qualities of the soil may modify the validity of cal- 
culations of this sort, since soils differ so much. 

One factor in soil-fertility is not supplied by chemicals. 
That factor is humus, a more important one than the 
others. In this stable-manure has the advantage, but the 
same results may be obtained by the judicious use of 
green-crops before planting and of cover-crops afterward. 

PROPAGATION 

In practice, there is but one way of propagating black- 
caps. That is from the tips formed where the ends of 
the canes take root. Plants can be grown from root- 
cuttings, or by burying the entire cane and cutting it 
1 Year Book, Dept. of Agr., 1895, 568. 



Propagation 65 

in pieces after roots have been thrown out, but these 
methods are seldom used. In sod ground, the tips take 
root readily, unaided, for they work their way in among 
the grass roots and are thus held in place until roots are 
formed. In cultivated ground they are usually blown 
about by the wind so much that they cannot get started. 
For this reason it is necessary to put the tips down and 
cover them with soil in order to secure many plants. This 
may be done with a hoe, a spade, or any other convenient 
implement. Better plants will be produced if the tip is 
pointed well downward, so that the end is the deepest 
part when covered. 

A tool hung somewhat like an adze, but with a narrower 
blade is found useful by some persons. Such a device 
was first suggested by L. J. Farmer of Pulaski, New York, 
and is used largely in planting strawberries. It is made 
about as heavy as a good-sized hammer, so that it can be 
readily swung in one hand. 

An implement on the plan of a spade, but with a narrow 
blade like a pruning or weed-spud would work well except 
on very stony ground. The blade should be strong but 
need not be more than six or eight inches long. A cross- 
bar on which to put the foot, for thrusting it into the soil, 
should be provided. With such an implement, the tips 
can be quickly fastened. It should be moved back and 
forth slightly after entering the soil, the tip inserted, then 
the tool thrust in again at the side and pressed toward 
the former opening to firm the soil about the tip and hold 
it in place. Either of these implements can be made by a 
blacksmith. 

Plants should be propagated from young plantations if 



66 Bush-Fruits 

feasible to do so. The tips from young bushes root more 
readily and produce more healthy and vigorous plants. 
A plant which has borne several crops of fruit, under or- 
dinary methods of care, becomes weakened in vitality, 
and this lack of vigor naturally extends to the young 
plant produced therefrom. Propagation from old planta- 
tions is especially objectionable if the plants are affected 
with anthracnose, or other fungous disease, as many old 
plantations are. The tips should not be covered until 
they begin to thicken and assume a leafless "snake-like" 
appearance. This condition usually begins about the 
middle of August, in middle latitudes. 

PLANTING 

Spring planting is to be preferred for black-caps, and if 
possible, it should be done early. The new shoot which 
springs up from the tip is very tender at first, and easily 
broken. It is, therefore, much better to remove and set 
the plant before growth begins. Failing in that it is well 
to allow these shoots to become strong enough to bear 
handling without being broken. If for any reason it 
seems best to get plants in the fall, a good method is to 
plant them close together in shallow furrows and mulch 
them well for the winter. They are left in this position 
until the young shoots have made a growth of several 
inches in spring. They are then set in their permanent 
place. By this means any poor plants may be weeded 
out and a perfect stand secured in the field. 

The plants should be set deep under ordinary soil condi- 
tions. Three to four inches is none too deep for best 



Planting 67 

results. This* does not mean that they should be put in 
the bottom of a hard furrow at that depth. The land 
should be well pulverized as deeply as it can conveniently 
be done, so that the bottom of the furrow will be mellow 
and friable like the rest. The plants are set in the bottom 
of the furrow but covered only enough to insure a proper 
start at first. The earth should be well firmed about the 
roots but preferably with a little loose mellow soil on top. 
The furrow is then gradually filled in later with the or- 
dinary tillage given, as growth progresses. At the outset, 
plants so set may not make so vigorous and even a start 
as if set nearer the surface, but they are likely to with- 
stand drought better and the canes are not so easily blown 
over. On many soils, especially those not well drained, 
there is trouble from heaving during the winter. As time 
goes on the crown of the plant may be lifted entirely 
above the ground level, leaving only roots beneath. Deep 
planting helps to obviate this trouble to some extent. On 
land where the subsoil is high and hard deep planting will 
not prove satisfactory. It means that the roots find the 
soil conditions too unfavorable in such situations. 

The young plants should be closely cut back when set; 
Inexperienced growers may sometimes neglect this. Even 
long canes are sometimes left, in the hope of getting fruit 
at once. This is a mistake, for any fruit obtained the 
first year is at the expense of the growth and vitality 
of the plant. It will be deducted from succeeding crops 
several times over. Plants which are not well cut back 
do not throw up young shoots from the root so readily, 
being more inclined to branch out from the old cane. 
Four to six inches of the old cane is enough to leave with 



68 Bush-Fruits 

the tip, just enough to furnish leaf surface to keep the 
plant growing until the young shoot gets under way. 

If the old canes are affected with anthracnose it is 
better to cut them away entirely before taking the plants 
to the field. This leaves the young tip dependent upon 
its own shoot for leaf surface but this is better than allow- 
ing it to battle with disease from the start. It is wiser 
to keep the plantation free from disease, in so far as 
possible, than to introduce it and then attempt to fight it 
afterward. If the pieces of cane left with the tips carry 
anthracnose spots when planted, the disease is transferred 
to the new plantation with as much certainty as the plants 
themselves. Diseased canes should be destroyed, or at 
least not allowed to lie about the field where the planting 
is going on. These fungi are as truly plants as the ones 
on which they live, and their seeds (spores) are as sure to 
germinate and grow if given proper conditions. 

If black-cap raspberries are to be planted in rows, three 
feet in the row, with rows six feet apart, will be found 
satisfactory distances. Some prefer rows seven feet apart; 
for very strong-growing varieties this may be better. If 
in hills, they should be not less than five feet apart each 
way, which may do for weak and slender-growing varieties, 
but as a rule six feet is much better. Black-caps are more 
easily kept in good condition in rows than red raspberries 
and blackberries, but the intermediate space between the 
plants must be kept clean by hand. It is therefore more 
expensive to care for an acre thus planted than when in 
hills far enough apart to admit of horse cultivation both 
ways. Larger and finer fruit can also be obtained from 
hills farther apart, with thorough cultivation on all sides. 



Tillage 69 

The main question is the yield. Those who have tried it 
most thoroughly are most confident that the yield is 
fully as good in hills as in rows. 

TILLAGE 

A few special points regarding tillage are worthy of 
attention. The first of importance is that it should begin 
early in spring. Most soils are fairly loose and mellow 
when the frost first leaves, but many become very hard 
after a few spring rains have beaten them down and the 
sun has dried them out. With favorable weather, so that 
cultivation can be started promptly after the frost leaves, 
the surface of nearly all soils can be readily put in good 
condition with any ordinary cultivator. If left until it 
becomes dry and hard, almost any cultivator will fail to 
do this, except on light and porous soils. A plow is some- 
times used for the first working, but this is not desirable. 
Even with a light plow, and turning as shallow a furrow 
as possible, the surface is left in an unfavorable condition. 
If the furrows are turned from the rows the roots may 
be disturbed and many of them are left too near the sur- 
face. If turned toward the rows a ridge is formed under- 
neath the plants, which soon becomes objectionable if 
the process is repeated, unless some means are used to 
work it down again. 

When cover-crops are used, it is especially important to 
start the work early in spring, if it is to be done with the 
cultivator alone, unless the crop is one which is killed down 
by the winter. Tillage should be frequent throughout 
the early part of the season, in order to maintain a good 



70 Bush-Fruits 

dust mulch and conserve moisture for fruit development. 
Fine fruit is a compound of carefully filtered water, with 
delicate fruit flavors. The more water the product con- 
tains the finer the product and the better it pleases the 
customer. Careful attention to the moisture supply is 
therefore one of the prime essentials in successful fruit- 
culture. 

Opinions differ as to how late tillage should continue, 
but if tips are to be put down for propagation tillage will 
need to stop when that is done. On average soils there is 
little danger of forcing too much late growth by con- 
tinuous tillage. 

PRUNING 

The first pruning in the life of a black-cap plant is to 
cut off all but a few inches of the old cane from the tip 
when it is set, as explained under the head of propagation. 
The next step, in ordinary commercial practice, is to pinch 
back the young shoot when it reaches a height of not 
more than eighteen to twenty-four inches. The younger 
or weaker the plant, the lower should be the point at which 
it is stopped. The object of this pinching, or clipping, is 
to stop the growth of the main shoot and cause the forma- 
tion of strong, lateral branches near enough to the ground 
to form a sturdy, self-supporting bush. This shoot will 
increase in height considerably after it is clipped, if done 
at the proper time. It is therefore important that it be 
nipped low. It is also important that it be done when 
the shoot reaches the desired height. If neglected until 
it has grown taller and then cut back to the desired 
height, the buds which are left will be slower in starting 



Pruning 71 

into growth than those near the tip. If tipped at too high 
a point the result will be a tall, top-heavy plant easily 
blown over or broken down. 

If done at the right time these shoots can be pinched 
off with the thumb and finger as easily as in any other 
way. In practice it is not easy to reach them all at 
the right time so that some implement may be useful. 
Sheep-shears are very convenient for this purpose. In 
young plantations, where there are no old canes in the 
way, a sharp knife or sickle will do the work more 
quickly. 

Tipping, as above described, is the only pruning de- 
manded the first season after the plant is set. The next 
step is to shorten back the lateral branches the following 
spring. These are ordinarily left from twelve to eighteen 
inches long, but this operation should not be done by rule. 
As previously suggested, this is the thinning process in 
handling bush-fruits, and should be done with judgment. 
The length of the lateral should be influenced by the age 
and vigor of the plant, the fertility of the soil and its 
moisture-holding capacity, the care and fertilizer given, 
etc. There is sometimes a temptation to leave too much 
wood, especially, the first year of fruiting. It is possible, 
by leaving the canes long, to secure a fairly large crop the 
first year, but when this is done the plant's energy is 
so absorbed in fruit production that little is left for wood 
growth. The succeeding crops are therefore much less 
satisfactory than they otherwise would be. 

The above method is the one commonly in use in grow- 
ing black-caps, but an occasional grower prefers to omit 
the summer pinching of the growing shoots, allowing them 



72 Bush-Fruits 

to form one long, tall, unbranched cane. This is merely 
shortened back in spring as conditions seem to warrant. 
When this method is followed the canes are often tied to 
stakes or trellises. The plan reduces the work of pruning, 
but that is more than offset by the trouble of staking or 
trellising if that is done. One point worth considering 
in connection with this method is the fact that diseases 
are less likely to be troublesome, especially anthracnose. 
In small, confined areas, especially on low, moist ground, 
this may be a matter of considerable importance. Per- 
haps it is largely for this reason that plantations are 
thought by some to last longer if handled in this way. 
The yields do not appear to average as well as by the 
former method. 

The last step in pruning is to cut away the fruiting 
canes after they have borne. The best time to do this is 
as soon as fruiting is over. At that time they are still 
alive and green and cut much easier than if left until 
winter or the following spring. Removing them also 
gives better opportunity for free circulation of air through 
the plantation. This tends to check the spread of fungous 
diseases. Some insects which work in the cane also spend 
the winter there, and may be destroyed by promptly re- 
moving and burning them. Removing the canes as soon 
as fruiting is over gives a good opportunity for thoroughly 
tilling and cleaning up the plantation before beginning to 
put down the tips for the growth of new plants. If too 
many young canes spring up in the hill, part of them 
should be removed when the old canes are cut away, un- 
less it has been done before. Not over five should be left; 
three may be even better. 



Harvesting 73 

When a plantation is to be discontinued, it is sometimes 
advisable to go through and pull out all j^oung shoots the 
last summer so that the energy of the plant may be di- 
rected to fruit-bearing. This is said to hasten ripening 
slightly and carry the fruit through in somewhat better 
condition, especially in dry seasons. 

HARVESTING 

Gathering the fruit is the most troublesome part of 
berry-growing. The availability of pickers is the first 
point to be considered in starting the business. Details 
as to methods of picking need not be repeated here as the 
same methods apply as with red raspberries and other 
small fruits. 

When grown for evaporating purposes it can be done 
by "batting" the fruit into a berry harvester. This 
method makes it possible for any farmer to take up this 
industry, no matter how remote he may be from towns 
or railways. In fact it makes the growing of raspberries 
for evaporating one of the best lines of fruit-growing for 
such locations, since it is a line in which the cost of delivery 
is almost entirely eliminated. The man with a ton of 
dried raspberries to market can afford to take them ten 
or fifteen miles to ship if need be. He will still have a 
very small percentage charge against the value of the prod- 
uce. With a ton of potatoes or hay the percentage is 
far different. It is in locations where pickers cannot be 
readily obtained that the chief value of this method of 
harvesting lies. The final cost of preparing the fruit for 
market is not materially different whether picked by hand 



74 



Bush-Fruits 




Fig. 11. Berry harvester. 



or gathered with the harvester but it is differently distrib- 
uted. Under some conditions one method will prove 
best and under other conditions the other will be most 
satisfactory. 

The harvester shown in Fig. 11 is a simple affair, con- 
sisting of a canvas tray some three feet square, there being 

only enough wood about it 
to form a frame-work and 
enable it to be moved about. 
Under the corner which rests 
on the ground, there is a sort 
of shoe of wood, enabling it 
to be slid along from bush to 
bush. In one hand the op- 
erator carries a large wire hook, with which the bushes 
are drawn over the canvas, or lifted up if too low down 
and in the way. In the other hand is a bat, resem- 
bling a lawn-tennis racket, with which he knocks off the 
ripe berries. This bat is merely a canvas-covered loop 
of heavy wire fastened in a convenient handle. In 
place of this, some use a wooden paddle, at the risk of 
bruising the fruit unnecessarily. In gathering by this 
method, the berries are allowed to become very ripe, and 
the plantation is gone over but two or three times in a 
season. Many dry leaves, some stems, and a few green 
-berries, are knocked off with the fruit. The leaves are not 
objectionable, for they help to absorb moisture before 
and after drying, and may aid in preventing mold if the 
fruit has to stand for some time before going to the evap- 
orator. The leaves are quickly taken out by running 
the fruit through a fanning mill after it is dried. Some 



Harvesting 75 

growers fan them out before drying, but this has the dis- 
advantage of bruising and crushing more berries. The 
berries are usually allowed to stand in the field in boxes 
for a time after gathering, and any insects which may 
have fallen in are likely to crawl out and disappear. 

Growers who have had much experience say that a man 
will average eight to ten bushels a day with the harvester, 
although much more can be gathered in the best picking. 
On one farm visited, two men and two girls had gathered 
thirty-one bushels the day previous in ordinary picking, 
and one of the men had been in the field but part of the 
time. This shows the first cost of gathering to be less than 
half a cent per quart. Running them through the fanning 
mill costs but a trifle. Before marketing they are picked 
over by hand to remove stems, green berries and other 
litter. This costs about one cent a pound, and is some- 
times paid for by the pound at that rate. The whole 
cost may not exceed one cent a quart, as against two 
cents usually paid for hand-picking. There are those, 
however, who think that in the end there is not much 
difference in the expense, whether gathered with the 
harvester or picked by hand. Growers who have had 
experience with both methods express the opinion that 
harvesting yields a better quality of dried fruit than hand- 
picking, for the reason that, if picked by hand, they can- 
not afford to look them over again after drying, and so 
they do not go to market in as clean and nice condition as 
those which come from the harvester. 

Some extensive and general fruit-growers find it in- 
convenient to look over the dried product at the same time 
that other fruits, which follow on after the raspberries, 



76 Bush-Fruits 

are claiming their attention. For that reason they prefer 
to pick a large part of the crop by hand and market it 
fresh, if pickers are to be had. In that case, they find 
the harvester a great convenience to finish up the last 
of the crop. Every grower knows how much dissatisfac- 
tion occurs in keeping the pickers at their work after 
the berries begin to grow scarce. With the harvester, the 
late berries can all be gathered at one time with much 
satisfaction to all concerned. This plan is also available 
for those who sell their fruit fresh. The last of the crop 
can be gathered and dried, thus affording relief to the 
market and to the patience of the grower and pickers. 

This method of harvesting was invented and intro- 
duced by Jewett Benedict, of Dundee, New York, and is 
extensively used by the berry-growers of that region. Most 
of the harvesters in use are simple home-made affairs, 
and various modifications have been adopted to suit the 
tastes of individual growers. Several of these are de- 
scribed in Farmers' Bulletin No. 213 from the Department 
of Agriculture at Washington. There is some loss of fruit 
in harvesting but the amount is not large. 

METHODS OF DRYING 

Drying out of Doors > 

Various methods of drying are employed, the simplest 
of which is to dry on boards in the sun as illustrated in 
Plate III. This usually takes from three to five days. Plat- 
forms or trays about twelve feet long and three to four feet 
wide are made of matched boards. A narrow strip is nailed 
around the edge of each tray to prevent the berries from 



Methods of Drying 77 

rolling off. The trays rest upon long horses made of scant- 
ling, to hold them at a convenient height from the ground. 
A little block is tacked across each corner of the trays, so 
that at night or in case of a shower they can be stacked up 
on top of each other and covered with boards or canvas. 
This is of necessity a slow way of drying, and the cost of 
lumber for trays to handle a large crop would be an im- 
portant item. One of the chief objections to the method is 
the large number of flies which it calls to the scene, the at- 
tentions of which do not render the fruit more appetizing. 
Indeed, those who are familiar with the method are often 
prejudiced against all dried raspberries. Sun-dried rasp- 
berries are usually quoted about one cent a pound below 
evaporated berries, but consumers can never be sure which 
they are getting. These trays might be covered with fly 
netting, but this would increase the time needed for dry- 
ing, and would not wholly obviate the difficulty, unless 
the netting were held above the fruit. If laid directly upon 
it little would be gained. A single attempt to dry black- 
berries under glass when covered with netting proved 
such a failure, inducing so much more molding than with- 
out the netting, that the plan would probably prove un- 
satisfactory. 

Drying under Glass 

Another method employed by those who have green- 
houses for the winter forcing of vegetables, is to utilize the 
space under glass during the berry season for this purpose. 
In this situation the berries usually dry in about three 
days, in bright, warm weather. The glass affords pro- 
tection from storm but not from flies. It is advisable to 



78 Bush-Fruits 

have as much air passing through the house as possible, 
hence the door and ventilators are left open. By using 
screen doors and protecting the ventilators with netting, 
most of the flies might be excluded. 

Drying with Evaporators 

For a business of any considerable extent, drying with 
an evaporator is by far the best method. The results are 
more rapid and certain and the product better. More 
pounds of fruit can be obtained from a given quantity of 
green fruit, too, than when dried in the sun. The higher 
heat of the evaporator more quickly dries the surface, while 
retaining the juices within, so that the fruit can go to the 
curing-room while much greener than it otherwise could. 
Sun-dried fruit becomes dry and hard, much as it is some- 
times found on wild raspberry bushes late in the season. 
When properly cured the evaporated product remains 
more soft and spongy. It then soaks out more quickly and 
assumes more of its natural condition. 

Many types and makes of evaporators are in use. Most 
of them depend upon hot-air furnaces of various kinds 
to do the work. In some large establishments the heat 
is supplied through coils of steam pipes. This method 
is especially adapted to situations where a power plant 
is in use for other purposes, so that the exhaust steam can 
be used for heating the evaporator. One advantage of 
steam lies in the fact that there is no danger of scorching 
the fruit. This is not a matter of great importance, for 
with reasonable care there is little need of this in any good 
hot-air machine. 





Plate III. Evaporating. Drying on trays in the sun; an evaporating 
establishment, using heat. 



Methods of Drying 79 

The temperature of the stack should run from 160° 
to 180° Fahrenheit. One important essential is a strong 
draft of fresh air through the machine. A large amount 
of vapor is given off by a machine full of hot, green fruit, 
and it needs to be removed and replaced with dry air as 
rapidly as possible. Much more fruit can be dried in a 
bright, fair day, with a brisk northwest wind, than in a 
damp, cloudy and still day. In some of the large hori- 
zontal machines the necessary draft of air is secured from 
large fans revolved by steam power. 

The commonest type is some form of stack in which 
the trays are put in at the bottom, directly over the heat, 
and gradually lifted to the top as others are put in be- 
neath. When dry they are taken out on the floor above, 
the trays being returned to the lower floor for refilling. 
One serious objection to this method is the fact that the 
work must be timed and a tray put in just often enough 
so that a dry one can be removed from the top. This is 
not easy, even with experience, for as above noted, weather 
conditions greatly modify results. A type described by 
Corbett x reverses this operation, putting in the green 
fruit at the top and removing the dried product at the 
bottom. The advantage claimed for the method is that 
the vapor from the green fruit will be more quickly re- 
moved without passing over that which is more nearly 
dry, and that quicker results, less dependent on atmos- 
pheric conditions, are to be obtained. A modern type 
evaporator is shown in Plate III. 

In the Williams evaporator, one of the earlier makes, 
the trays were placed on hangers attached to endless 
1 Farmers' Bulletin, No. 213, U. S. Dept. of Agr. 



80 Bush-Fruits 

chains revolving over two shafts. When first put in, the 
tray was dropped down directly over the heat, moving 
from there up one flue of the stack, over the top and down 
to the place of entrance. Each hanger had space for seven 
trays, but only one was put in at a time, so that each 
tray passed up and down the stack several times before 
it was removed. This gave full opportunity for the 
"stackman" to examine the fruit and note the progress 
of drying. Any tray could be removed, independently of 
others, whenever it came opposite the entrance door, or 
could be brought there at any time. While very/ con- 
venient, this type of machine did not so fully utilize the 
space within the stack, and seems to have dropped out 
of use. 

The fruit is taken from the evaporator when only par- 
tially dry, a small percentage of it being still soft. It is 
then placed on a curing floor, where it is shoveled over 
daily for some three weeks. Instead of the curing floor 
some now use small curing boxes, the fruit being turned 
from one box to another each day. This plan may econ- 
omize room and perhaps secures greater uniformity of 
moisture content when ready for packing. By this process 
of slow curing a much softer and better product is secured 
than could be done by drying them hard in the machine. 
The weight of marketable fruit is also greater. Being 
soft and spongy it can be more easily packed. When 
used, such fruit will readily take up water and regain 
much of its former character. 

A good historical account of the evaporated raspberry 
industry, as given by Bailey, will be found in Bulletin 100 
of the Cornell University Experiment Station. No marked 



Methods of Drying 81 

changes in the industry have appeared since that was 
written, except that its location has shifted somewhat. 
Few are now evaporated in Wayne County, Dundee 
being the center of the industry at present. It has spread 
fairly well over the eastern part of Yates and northeastern 
part of Schuyler counties. 

A Western Method of Drying 

A* novel method of drying raspberries is reported from 
Idaho. 1 The climate is there so dry that the berries are 
dried on the bushes. The fruiting canes are laid down in 
spring to keep the young shoots from mingling with them. 
Two men with a pole do this and they are held down by a 
wire. The canes are cut with a horse and sled cutter, 
rolled into bunches and stood up against the new growth 
to dry, which takes from four to seven days. A wagon 
with flat-bottomed rack and high sides is then driven 
through. One man pitches the bundles on and two others 
thrash off the berries with forks into the rack. It is said 
that three men can thrash and fan some three acres per 
day. Each berry carries a stem, which is removed by 
running them through a machine with rollers designed 
for the purpose. Idaho conditions are considered ideal 
for the purpose and when the irrigation and culture have 
been right the fruit is claimed to be much sweeter and 
richer than that which is hand-picked and evaporated in 
the East. Two men are able to care for forty acres, with 
one or two extra for a month or so during harvest. The 
writer claims that the method practically eliminates the 
1 Rural New Yorker, 1909: 963 & 1041. 



82 Bush-Fruits 

cost of harvesting, since by this way it is little more than 
that of removing the old canes in ordinary culture. He 
claims a yield of 1,000 pounds an acre at a cost of produc- 
tion of $20 an acre. The method is interesting as showing 
the possibilities of adaptation to differing conditions. 

MARKETING 

When sold fresh, black raspberries are usually marketed 
in the ordinary quart baskets. They hold up fairly well 
in these, and being one of the cheaper berries, this package 
meets the demands of most markets well. The berries 
would be more attractive and handle better in pints, if 
the market would warrant it. This might be found ad- 
visable for the first of the season in cases where a satisfac- 
tory price can still be maintained. 

The dried fruit is marketed either in barrels or boxes. 
The boxes used are the same as those in which evaporated 
apples are packed, being about 12 by 12 by 24 inches in 
size, and holding 50 pounds of fruit. In packing dried 
fruit an extra heavy box, without bottom, is placed on 
top of the one to be filled and some form of press used to 
force the required weight into the packing-box. The 
product is usually marketed through commission men or 
large wholesale houses. 

DURATION OF PLANTATIONS 

The life of a plantation will depend somewhat on how 
it is handled. Plants may live and bear fruit for many 
years. They may last longer when allowed to go un- 



Clearing the Ground 83 

pruned and uncared for than when given good care. The 
point to determine is not how long they will live, but how 
long will they pay. With ordinary good culture it is sel- 
dom wise to harvest more than four crops. Of these, the 
first crop is only a partial one. As a plantation grows 
older, more labor is needed to keep it in condition. The 
yields grow less and the fruit smaller. More profit is 
therefore likely to result from tearing it out and replant- 
ing, after a few good crops, rather than in trying to keep 
it bearing longer. 

CLEARING THE GROUND 

To rid a piece of ground of black raspberry plants, when 
no longer wanted, is comparatively simple. Mow, rake 
together, and burn the bushes, after fruiting. Then plow 
deep and thoroughly, turning out all the berry stumps, and 
the work is practically done. Some of the plants will 
throw up shoots again when not thoroughly uprooted, 
but they can be subdued with little trouble. This first 
plowing is heavy and slow work, and many of the stumps 
will drag out and interfere in a measure with the subse- 
quent harrowing, but aside from that, there is little diffi- 
culty. If the land is to be used for small or fine crops, 
these stumps will need to be removed, but for potatoes 
or corn they will cause little trouble. Raspberries seem 
to leave the land in fine condition for other crops. One 
may expect a good piece of corn to follow a raspberry 
plantation when turned under. 



84 Bush-Fruits 

HARDINESS 

Black raspberries are among the hardiest members of 
the bramble family. Even the more tender varieties will 
withstand the winters of most localities in middle latitudes 
without injury. In severe climates, and especially in the 
Plains region, winter protection becomes necessary. Even 
when not entirely killed, plants are often so weakened in 
vitality that the yield is unsatisfactory. Under such con- 
ditions, laying them down for winter is to be advised. 
Much depends on the condition of the plant during 
its season of growth. Plants probably "winter-kill" in 
August as well as in January. Good tillage, and protec- 
tion from insect and fungous injury during summer may 
be as important as protection from cold in winter. 

YIELDS 

Some years ago a number of New York state growers 
were asked to give their estimate of a fair average yield 
of black-caps to the acre. The replies varied widely and 
came from commercial growers and from those who only 
grew a small number in the home-garden. Averaging 
these estimates as best it could be done, gave about 2500 
quarts as the amount to be expected from an acre. The 
figures were worthy of confidence, because they came from 
practical men who were in the business, but were only 
estimates, not actual records. More recently Wilson has 
found the actual yields in commercial plantations to be 
considerably less than this. 1 He gives records from 134 
1 The Cornell Reading-Courses, Vol. II, No. 36. 



Yields 85 

acres, including several varieties, the average yield being 
a little less than 1500 quarts to the acre. The average 
money return from these fields was about $112 for each 
acre. 

The yield in pounds of dried product to a bushel of 
green fruit varies greatly with different seasons and parts 
of the same season. Early in a wet season, when the fruit 
has made a quick, vigorous and watery growth, it may 
take four quarts to make a pound of dried fruit. At the 
end of a very dry season, it may take only two quarts. 
Growers expect to average about ten pounds of dried 
fruit to the bushel. Varieties differ considerably in this 
respect. The Ohio is one of the heaviest yielders, in pro- 
portion to the amount of green fruit, owing largely to the 
greater number of seeds. It is one of the poorest in quality, 
and possesses less food value per bushel than other varie- 
ties. The Gregg follows it closely in yield and is a better 
berry. In some experiments with seedlings, Goff found 
that small and juicy berries yielded a higher percentage of 
evaporated fruit than larger and dryer ones, showing that 
it does not follow that a berry which is dry in texture 
will give a good yield when evaporated. In point of 
quality and food value, the Shaffer ranks among the best. 
From the consumer's standpoint varieties of this type 
are among the most desirable. They are so near like the red 
raspberries that when evaporated the quality is fully 
equal, if not superior, to that of the true reds, while the 
yield of dried fruit per bushel is not very far below that of 
the black-caps. It is certainly an excellent berry to dry 
for the home market, where the price can be made to con- 
form to the cost of production. 



86 Bush-Fruits 

The man who is growing berries to evaporate is not 
likely to suffer so seriously from drought as the one who 
sells his fruit fresh. Dry weather reduces the number of 
quarts per acre more than the number of pounds of dried 
fruit. A long drought, extending through the early part 
of the season, does injure the yield, but dry weather at 
ripening time only, need cause no serious loss if the cul- 
tivation has been frequent and thorough. The man who 
will till and care for his plants as he should is nearly 
independent of drought. 

USUAL PROFITS 

Based on Wilson's figures for average yields of fresh 
fruits to the acre, as previously quoted, and estimating 
the yield of dried fruit at ten pounds a bushel, the average 
amount of dried fruit to be expected from an acre will be 
about 500 pounds. Wholesale prices for the finished 
product vary, but in recent years have usually ranged 
from twenty to twenty-five cents a pound. Formerly 
the cost of harvesting and marketing ran about as fol- 
lows: — Harvesting with the berry harvester }/£, cent a 
quart; evaporating, 214 cents a pound; cleaning for market 
and marketing each 1 cent a pound. Changed conditions 
may alter these figures somewhat at the present time, but 
they will serve as a basis on which the inexperienced man 
can form some estimate of the probable outcome of the 
undertaking under favorable conditions. On this basis 
the gross return to the acre should be $100 to $125, from 
fields in full bearing. The cost of harvesting and market- 
ing would be $30 or more, leaving the remainder to pay 



Usual Profits 87 

for the cost of growing, including rent of land, fertilizer, 
planting, care, oversight and other overhead charges, 
and profits. To the man with a taste for this kind of work 
whose soil, site and climate are favorable, the growing 
of black raspberries for evaporating purposes can be rec- 
ommended with confidence. Especially is this true for 
the man who does not have a good local market and is so 
situated that he cannot easily secure pickers for other 
lines of small-fruit growing. 

A price of twenty cents a pound for the dried product 
will be equivalent to about six cents a quart fresh. Ac- 
curate figures concerning cost of production are hard to 
secure, and each grower can make his own estimates best. 
A crop of potatoes can be grown between the rows the year 
of setting, which will usually repay that year's cultivation, 
exclusive of the cost of plants, while the second year's crop 
of fruit will do the same, and perhaps more. Plants can 
be bought at $6 to $8 a thousand. If set three by six feet, 
it requires 2,420 plants to the acre. If set farther apart 
than this, the number required is proportionately less. 

The fear of over-production discourages some persons 
from undertaking work of this kind. The raspberry in- 
dustry does not differ from other lines of farm enterprise 
in this regard. So long as human nature remains the 
same, fluctuations in product and prices may be expected 
to continue, whether the product be potatoes, cows, wheat 
or raspberries. While evaporated raspberries do not 
rank as a high grade product and are not in as great de- 
mand as many other articles of food, the total consump- 
tion is still large. The individual grower need have little 
fear of not finding a market for his output. 



. CHAPTER IV 

BLACKBERRIES 

The blackberry, as a cultivated plant, is an American 
fruit. The child of our eastern hills, woodlands and 
mountains, its introduction to the garden and field has 
been recent. Methods and varieties are, therefore, alike 
new. In many localities the abundance of the wild fruit 
still interferes with the profitable culture of the garden 
varieties. Much improvement is yet to be expected in 
varieties and perhaps in methods. 

According to the census of 1910, there were growing in 
the United States in 1909 about 49,000 acres of blackberries 
and dewberries. Missouri leads in production, with 
nearly 6,000 acres, followed by New Jersey, with 4,332 
and Michigan with 3,500, while Wyoming and Nevada 
each report one acre or less. 

SOIL 

Considerable diversity of opinion exists among growers 
regarding the soil best suited to the blackberry, a diversity 
which is no doubt due, in part at least, to the fact that a 
blackberry is hard to kill. It is likely to make a partial 
success wherever it may chance to be, for it possesses a 
genuine courage which knows no failure, and bravely sets 
out to make the best of existing conditions. 

Many hold that only a comparatively light and poor 



Fertilizers 89 

soil is suitable, in order that the plants may not make too 
great a growth of wood at the expense of fruit-production. 
On the other hand, growers in the prairie states, where the 
land is naturally rich, do not recommend their poorer soils. 
A strong, well-drained clay loam meets with the most 
general approval, though light, warm land, having a 
porous clay subsoil, may give excellent results. On these 
stronger soils, plants have frequently passed the- winter 
unharmed when in parts of the same field on more sterile 
soil they were badly winter-killed. 

A soil that is retentive of moisture is imperative, this 
being the prime essential in blackberry growing. For 
this reason a cool, northern exposure is generally pref- 
erable, because such a location will help to offset injury 
from drought, the arch enemy of the blackberry. Deep 
working of the soil before planting, and natural or arti- 
ficial drainage, are essential both to conserve the neces- 
sary moisture and to prevent over-supply. None of our 
cultivated brambles can make satisfactory terms with a 
wet, heavy soil, and any attempt to compel them to do 
so will surely result in failure. Land with a high and 
hard subsoil, therefore, should be tile-drained before 
planting. 

FERTILIZERS 

Do blackberries need fertilizers? Some say no; others 
yes. There must be a reason for this difference of opinion. 
On strong, moist soil blackberries may produce such a 
rampant growth that they nearly forget to bear fruit. 
These overgrown, poorly matured canes are then likely 
to suffer from the cold of the succeeding winter, and to 



90 Bush-Fruits 

be left in a condition to repeat the same behavior the 
following season. It is a significant fact, however, that 
western growers, who may be fairly presumed to have a 
stronger soil, are strongest in their recommendations of 
liberal fertilizing. The following statement from O. B. 
Galusha, as reported in the Transactions of the Illinois 
Horticultural Society for 1880, is worthy of careful con- 
sideration: "A generous feeding of the soil is amply repaid 
in liberal crops of fruit. In my older plantation, the soil 
was equally manured throughout, and yet on one side it 
is naturally considerably richer than the other, and this 
side produces fully one-third more fruit than the other." 
This same principle will apply equally well to ordinary 
soils throughout the country, as a whole. If properly 
managed and pruned, the plants will be able to transform 
a large amount of plant-food into luscious berries and 
laughing dollars. Heavy applications of stable-manure 
to young plants, which have not yet sufficient wood to 
carry full crops, may work injury, especially if on strong, 
moist soils. On soils of this character, nothing is needed 
until the plants are in full bearing. If additional plant- 
food is then desirable, commercial fertilizers, may better 
fill the need. 

In the use of chemicals, a quick-acting carrier of nitro- 
gen, like nitrate of soda, is to be preferred. This, if ap- 
plied early in the season, at the time when growth is be- 
ginning, will do its work with time for proper ripening of 
the cane to insure best conditions for withstanding winter 
injury. For the same reason, stable-manure, when used, 
should be applied in fall or winter, rather than spring or 
early summer. 



Propagation of the Blackberry 91 

Since potash has been shown to increase the sugar con- 
tent of fruits, its use for the blackberry is especially de- 
sirable. The greatest fault with the cultivated blackberry 
as a dessert fruit is its acidity. Whatever -treatment will 
tend to reduce that acidity is worthy of trial. 

The blackberry is not particularly sensitive to soil 
acidity. Lime is therefore seldom essential to best results. 

PROPAGATION OP THE BLACKBERRY 

The propagation of blackberries, by means of suckers, 
as commonly done, is a simple operation. The plants at- 
tend to the matter themselves, the cultivator need only 
care for the product. Keeping down suckers, in fact, is 
one of the most troublesome operations in blackberry 
growing. When produced in large numbers, their effect 
is to detract from the vigor and productiveness of the 
parent plant. A plantation will soon become choked with 
young plants if left undisturbed. Unless these plants are 
wanted for sale or for planting, vigorous measures are 
needed to hold them in check. If a market for them is at 
hand, they may prove more profitable than the fruit. 

If many plants of a new and high-priced variety are 
desired, the number of suckers may be increased by cul- 
tivation which tends to disturb the roots. Thrusting a 
spade into the ground in circles several inches apart about 
the parent plant will sever many of the roots, practically 
making root-cuttings of them, thereby causing a large 
number of plants to spring up. Some careful observers 
assert that close pruning also tends to increase the number 
of suckers. 



92 Bush-Fruits 

Plants in large numbers can be cheaply produced from 
an old plantation which is to be discarded, by cutting away 
the bushes, plowing and cultivating the ground in spring, 
then letting everything grow. If the land is poor, manuring 
will increase the vigor of the plants. Roots have also been 
found to throw up more suckers when in contact with 
coarse manure. 

Propagation by suckers is the most common method, 
and answers equally well for practical purposes, yet root- 
cuttings are often used, and give excellent results. This 
is especially true where a speedy increase of choice varie- 
ties is desired. The blackberry is particularly well adapted 
to this method of propagation, and all the work can be 
done out of doors. The cuttings may be made either in 
fall or spring. All roots three-sixteenths of an inch or 
more in diameter may be used, being cut into pieces two 
or three inches long. If taken in the fall, they should be 
stored in boxes of moist sand, which should be kept in a 
cellar during the winter, or be buried outside on dry 
ground, where no water will collect about them. It is 
well to have holes or cracks in the bottom of the boxes, 
to allow the escape of surplus moisture. The cuttings 
should be stratified in the boxes in the same way that seeds 
and nuts are, with a layer of sand or soil, then a layer of 
cuttings, another of sand, and so on. With favorable 
winter conditions, callusing will have begun before spring, 
so that the pieces will be in good condition for planting. 
For this reason cuttings taken in the fall and properly 
treated during the winter, usually give better success and a 
more vigorous growth than those taken in spring. In 
spring the cuttings are planted out in loose, mellow soil, 



Propagation of the Blackberry 93 

in trenches two to three inches deep, depending upon the 
comparative heaviness or lightness of the soil, and about 
three inches apart in the furrow. They are covered and the 
soil firmed over them, the same as in planting peas, pota- 
toes, or any other garden vegetable. Mulching the ground 
with a light layer of straw, sawdust, or similar material, 
to prevent it from drying out, aids their growth and helps 
to insure a good stand. 

For those who have greenhouse facilities, a very satis- 
factory way is to take up the roots and make the cuttings 
as early in spring as the ground will permit, stratifying 
them in boxes of sand as already described, and placing 
them under the greenhouse benches. Later, as other 
plants go outside and space permits, these boxes are 
placed on the benches. By this treatment the cuttings 
become callused, and are in good condition to go into 
trenches outside by the last of May. 

With an especially choice variety where it is desirable 
to increase the stock with the greatest possible speed, 
the cuttings may be made smaller, one-half to one inch 
long, and the whole operation be carried on under glass. 
Such cuttings are best placed just beneath the surface in 
beds of sand, and furnished with a gentle bottom heat. 
The plants are potted off as soon as buds have been de- 
veloped and are well under way, or when leaf-growth has 
begun. Sometimes they are sown in shallow boxes of 
soil after the callus and buds have developed, and allowed 
to remain till several inches high, then potted, or even 
set from here directly into the open field, if the weather 
and soil are in suitable condition. 



94 Bush-Fruits 



PLANTING 

The question of when to plant should precede the ques- 
tion of how to plant. As noted in Chapter I, there are 
advantages both in spring and in fall planting. Few 
failures are likely to result in either case if proper pre- 
cautions are taken. Plants set in late fall should be pro- 
tected with a covering of soil or coarse manure during 
the winter. In the great Plains region of the Middle 
West, fall planting is less likely to succeed than in the 
moister climates of the East. Winter drought there pre- 
vails as well as summer drought, and plants often perish 
for lack of moisture during the winter months. 

Neither is fall planting to be generally advised under 
conditions at the opposite extreme, where the rainfall is 
excessive and the winters open, but with much alternate 
freezing and thawing, as along the southern New England 
coast. In such localities excessive heaving may cause 
serious loss. Under average conditions, fall planting is to 
be preferred to late spring planting. If the work can be 
done at the right time, plant in spring; if not, plant in 
fall. 

Thorough soil preparation is the first essential in the 
planting of all fruits. This has already been discussed, but 
can hardly be over-emphasized. Soil texture is one of the 
fundamental factors in soil fertility, and good tillage is one 
of the primary means by which it may be secured. Thor- 
ough, deep plowing and harrowing will not only make the 
work of planting easier and more effective, but will add 
much to the later growth and development of the plants. 
Any previous treatment which will increase the humus 



Planting 95 

content of the soil will also help to insure the future 
success of the undertaking. 

Whether to plant in hedge-rows or check-rows, must be 
decided before planting begins. The decision will be in- 
influenced both by circumstances and by the individual 
preference of the grower. Many fields cannot well be 
cultivated in both directions. This may settle the matter 
at the outset. Much difference of opinion seems to exist 
as to which is the better method, where either one is 
feasible. The method of training to be used will also help 
to determine the plan best adapted to the individual case. 

Those who advocate the check-row system claim that 
larger and finer fruit is produced, with less hand work. 
To keep a hedge-row free from weeds and grass is a labori- 
ous and troublesome undertaking. Working both ways 
with the horse and cultivator, taking care to keep the 
hills well within bounds, does away with much of that 
work, but increases the amount of horse-work. It is 
generally believed that the yield from hills is less than 
from hedge-rows, but some advocates of the hill system 
claim that this is not the case. It would seem that to 
secure satisfactory results from hills these hills would 
need to be left quite large, and in that case there would 
still be considerable opportunity for weeds to grow. For 
hill cultivation the plants are ordinarily set six to eight 
feet apart each way. 

Having decided on the method to be employed, mark 
out the land to correspond, plowing good, deep furrows in 
one direction to receive the plants. In setting, time will 
be saved if three or four men can work together. Let one 
carry the plants in a pail of water, and drop them at the 



96 Bush-Fruits 

intersection of the mark and furrow, while the others set. 
The roots should be well spread along the furrow, the soil 
drawn in over them, and firmed with the hands or feet. 
Ordinarily this is most conveniently done by working on 
hands and knees on the opposite side of the furrow from 
which the soil is thrown out, so that it can be quickly drawn 
in with the hands. In fine, mellow soil, free from stones, 
the planter may walk along the furrow, take the plant in 
one hand, and do the covering and firming with the feet, 
or at least enough of it to fix the plant in position and 
protect it from drying out, leaving the balance to be done 
with hoes. The furrows should be deep enough to admit 
of setting the plants a little lower than they previously 
grew, and of doing it easily. Filling in the furrow, beyond 
what is required to insure satisfactory conditions of 
growth for the young plants, can be left to follow as a 
matter of course in the future cultivation. 

For row planting, rows eight feet apart, with plants 
three feet apart in the row, will be found satisfactory; this 
gives 1,815 plants to the acre. Occasionally a grower 
prefers planting as close as two feet, and others as far apart 
as four feet. The vigor of the variety and its suckering 
habit may influence this. 

Intermingling varieties in planting to insure more effec- 
tual pollination is not often practiced, for most varieties 
are self -fertile. Varieties which have their origin in the 
crossing of blackberries and dewberries, such as Rathbun, 
Mammoth and Wilson, will be helped by pollen from 
other sorts. Even varieties which are self-fertile may be 
benefited by pollen from another sort. If more than one 
variety is to be grown it is both safe and wise to plant 



Tillage and Mulching 97 

them near together, so that whatever benefit may come 
from interpollination may be secured. 

Intercrops may be grown between the blackberry rows 
while the plants are young, and are to be advised during 
the first season. Such hoed crops as potatoes, cabbage, 
tomatoes and beans are excellent. Corn, owing to its 
extensive root system and heavy demands upon the soil- 
moisture is less suitable. Strawberries are sometimes used 
for this purpose and should give good results the first 
year of fruiting. The constant tillage needed to keep the 
strawberry rows in place will help to push the young black- 
berry plants along in the way they should go. After 
fruiting, the strawberry plants may be abandoned and 
torn out with the later cultivation. 

TILLAGE AND MULCHING 

Little need be said on the subject of cultivation in addi- 
tion to what has already been said in Chapter I. Some 
writers have advised no cultivation for the blackberry, 
at least after the second year, on the ground that cultiva- 
tion produces too rampant growth and consequent lack 
of hardiness. While this may be true in part, the prac- 
tice of letting them go without cultivating is open to an 
equally serious if not more grave objection. The most 
dangerous enemy to blackberry-growing in most parts of 
the country is dry weather, especially if occurring about 
the time of ripening. Tillage is the most available means 
at command, in most cases, for overcoming this difficulty. 
A crop may easily be reduced one-half by drying up on the 
bushes. While cultivation cannot entirely prevent this 



98 



Bush-Fruits 



loss, it will do much toward it. Thorough cultivation 
every ten days throughout the season is the best known 
substitute for irrigation, and should be vigorously main- 
tained up to the time the fruit ripens, at least. 

A cultivator which will cut the suckers below the surface 
of the ground is a great aid, unless plants are to be grown 
for sale or for further planting. Two such implements are 
described in the introductory chapter. A spring-tooth 




Fig. 12. Tilling blackberries with spring-tooth cultivator. 

cultivator, drawn by either one or two horses (Fig. 12), is 
a most useful tool for blackberry plantations. 

Mulching proves very satisfactory where the conditions 
are favorable. It is especially adapted to the home-gar- 
den, where patches are likely to be small and inconven- 
iently cultivated. There is sometimes a tendency to in- 
duce too late fall growth, and in this respect it is inferior 
to cultivation, for a cessation of tillage practically removes 
the soil-mulch, at least if rains follow soon to pack the 
surface. 



Tillage and Mulching 99 

A system of partial mulching practiced on the Thayer 
farms at Sparta, Wisconsin, seems to have given excellent 
results under their conditions, and may be worthy of 
more general use. The plan followed was to grow clover 
in a field by itself, cutting it when in bloom. It was then 
drawn to the berry field and applied as a mulch along the 
rows, the central space between the rows being kept well 
cultivated. Such a plan applies mulch where tillage is 
most troublesome and expensive. If the mulch is heavy 
enough, it tends to discourage weed growth and excessive 
sucker production in among the plants where most dif- 
ficult to control. The part most easily tilled on the other 
hand, where tillage is simplest and cheapest, is left free 
to be handled in this way. A thorough mulch is more 
effective than surface cultivation in retaining soil mois- 
ture. Coupled with this is the additional advantage that 
the decay of the mulch is constantly furnishing humus to 
the soil. The principal objection to the practice lies in 
the cost of the material and its application. If cheap 
mulching material can be conveniently secured, the 
method is worthy of careful consideration. 

Where clean tillage is practiced, the use of cover-crops 
will aid in maintaining the humus supply, and in securing 
air nitrogen. The crop or crops to be used for the purpose 
will depend largely on the nature of the climate. Crops 
which do not survive the winter gather less nitrogen and 
add less humus but are more easily managed. A strong, 
thrifty growth of clover or vetch in among the plants is 
difficult to subdue in spring. If left undisturbed it is 
scarcely less objectionable than weeds in its immediate 
effects on the berry crop. 



100 Bush-Fruits 



PRUNING 

Opinions differ as to the best method of pruning and 
training the blackberry. As ordinarily practiced in com- 
mercial work it is a simple operation, if done at the proper 
time. If neglected at the time when it should be done the 
results can never be satisfactory. The only summer 
pruning required is to pinch the growing cane once, at 
from eighteen inches to two feet from the ground. There 
need be no fear of pinching too low, for the cane elongates 
considerably after being clipped, if still young, and the 
result is a much better formed bush than if allowed to 
get three or four feet high before being cut. I wish to 
reiterate the caution to pinch back the canes when they 
get to the desired height. It makes a vast difference to 
the future growth of a bush whether the tip is clipped off 
when it gets two feet high or whether it is allowed to grow 
to four feet and then cut back to two feet. 

At the spring pruning the laterals are cut back to from 
one to two feet in length. This is an operation demanding 
much judgment, for it is a fruit-thinning process. Too 
close pruning will diminish the yield, too little will allow 
more fruit to set than can be properly matured. Not all 
varieties are alike in fruiting-habit. The Taylor, one of 
the best all-round varieties in cultivation, does not bear 
fruit close to the main stem. Four to eight buds at the 
base of the branches usually produce no flowers. Un- 
branched canes often fail to develop flowers within two 
feet of the ground. Close pruning of this variety, there- 
fore, will take away most of the fruit. Other varieties 
under observation bore flowers within three or four buds 



Pruning 101 

i 
of the main stem. Erie is said to behave like Taylor in 
this respect and Early Harvest is said to bear its fruit- 
buds near the main stem at times and near the tips at 
others. It is, therefore, better to defer spring pruning 
until the buds develop, unless the grower is sure of his 
ground. 

While the above method is the one commonly followed 
in field culture in the eastern states, other methods are 
more popular in some localities. Where soil and climate 
tend to produce a very tall and strong cane, it is a common 
practice to allow them to grow in their own way but to 
provide some kind of support to hold them up. The 
particular advantage claimed for this method is that it 
permits full exposure of all buds and leaves to sun and 
air, with the result that larger and finer crops of fruit are 
produced. The argument seems reasonable and perhaps 
explains why the method is apparently more popular in 
moist localities where sunlight in less intense. The chief 
disadvantage lies in the extra labor involved in providing 
support and securing the plants to it. 

The most common support is some form of wire trellis. 
The simplest type consists of a single wire stretched to 
posts set in the row. This wire is put three to five or six 
feet from the ground depending on the height to which the 
canes ordinarily grow. A low wire is sometimes used, 
even where the growing canes are tipped to induce branch- 
ing but such plants usually stand up well without support. 
Sometimes two wires are used, one above the other, 
where canes grow very tall. For a good illustration of 
trellis-grown blackberries, see frontispiece. 

A modification of this trellis, with either the single or 



102 Bush-Fruits 

the double wire, consists in nailing cross-pieces to the 
posts and fastening the wires to these, 18 or 20 inches 
apart. The canes are then trained up between the wires, 
being thus supported without tying. 

Trailing varieties are trained like dewberries except those 
of the evergreen type (Rubus laciniatus). The canes of 
this class do not die each year, after fruiting, as do those 
of our common varieties. Old wood continues to live and 
bear fruit from year to year if allowed to do so. The 
plants should therefore be trained in much the same man- 
ner as grapes, for young canes produce the best fruit. 
Pruning away surplus wood is delayed until winter in 
order not to stimulate the growth of laterals. 

The old canes of ordinary varieties are best removed as 
soon as through fruiting, while they are more easily cut, 
thereby disposing of whatever fungus spores and insects 
may be harboring about them. 

HARVESTING AND MARKETING 

Despite the thorny character of the bushes, black- 
berries are among the easiest gathered of any of the small- 
fruits. The fruit when well grown is large, and easily 
and rapidly picked. A word of caution may be needed 
in regard to two things. The first is never to leave the 
fruit in the sun after being picked, as a few minutes' 
exposure to hot sunshine will turn it red and render it 
more or less bitter and unpalatable. The next point is not 
to pick it until ripe. The cultivated blackberry has been 
greatly misjudged in the matter of quality because the 
fruit of many varieties turns black before it is ripe. The 



Uses 103 

result is, that oftener than otherwise the berries are picked 
green, and consumers, supposing them to be ripe because 
they are black, growl because they are sour or sometimes 
bitter. For distant markets this cannot be wholly avoided, 
as the fruit must be picked while still firm, even at the 
expense of quality. For home use, if left till the bees 
begin to eat them, there will be no cause for complaint 
at the quality of the cultivated blackberry. In commercial 
work much attention must be given to this point. If 
picked while still firm, the fruit handles and carries well. 
If left until fully ripe and beginning to soften, the ideal 
condition for immediate use in its fresh state, it will 
quickly spoil on the market. A blackberry when first 
turned is a very firm fruit, when fully ripe a very soft one. 
The fruit is marketed either in pint or in quart baskets, 
as best suits the fancy of the selected market. The black- 
berry is a fruit which usually meets with a ready sale at 
good prices, and one which handles well. Many small 
inland towns and villages consume very considerable 
quantities of the fruit at prices which are eminently satis- 
factory to the grower. In localities where wild fruit is 
abundant the demand may be limited. 



USES 

The blackberry is primarily a table fruit for immediate 
consumption, either in its fresh state or in the making of 
pies, puddings and the like. Heating changes its flavor 
and color materially. This is a change rather than an 
injury, however, for by many the cooked product is pre- 
ferred to the uncooked. The fruit therefore lends itself 



104 Bush-Fruits 

readily to home canning and is largely used in this way. 
It also affords excellent jams and jellies. 

In the commercial cannirJg industry, the blackberry 
now holds a much more important place than formerly. 
According to Darrow 1 the introduction of the lacquered- 
tin can has had much to do with the increased use of this 
fruit among canners. Ordinary tin is said to discolor the 
fruit when it comes in contact with it. Canners are able 
to use large quantities of wild and other low-grade fruit, 
which might otherwise go to waste. 

Dried blackberries are nearly always quoted in market, 
yet, so far as known, are not grown for that purpose, the 
supply coming almost wholly from the South, where the 
wild berries are gathered and are dried in the sun. They 
are usually poor in quality, and quoted at a price which 
would render it unprofitable to dry them if there were a 
market for fresh fruit. .In order to learn something of 
their adaptability for this purpose, eight well-filled quart 
baskets just as we were selling them fresh, were taken 
for experiment. They were made to correspond in weight, 
so that each quart, with the basket, weighed one and one- 
half pounds. Deducting the weight of the baskets left 
five pounds ten and one-half ounces of fruit in each of 
two lots of four quarts. Granulated sugar was freely 
sprinkled over one lot. Four ounces of sugar was thus 
used, one ounce to each quart, making the weight of this 
lot plus the sugar, five pounds fourteen and one-half 
ounces. Both lots were put in the greenhouse to dry 
August 3, on wire screens, and covered with mosquito 
netting to keep away the flies. After one or two days of 
1 Farmers' Bulletin, No. 643. 



Uses 105 

sunshine, there came several cloudy ones, and the berries 
began to mold, so that the netting had to be removed. 
Those treated with sugar molded less than the others, 
and stuck to the screens less in drying. August 12 both 
lots were taken up and weighed. They appeared to be 
as dry as raspberries usually are when put into the curing 
room, but quickly began to mold again when put in a pile 
together. The four quarts dried without sugar weighed 
at this date one pound ten and one-half ounces. The four 
quarts dried with sugar weighed one pound fifteen and 
one-half ounces. From these weights, it appears that not 
over twelve to fourteen pounds of dried fruit to the bushel 
can be expected. The weight of sugar applred seems to be 
retained, and possibly increases the "^ight slightly in 
addition, by retaining more of the juices of the fruit. 
Those treated with sugar seemed to remain in a softer and 
better condition for cooking. Judging from this attempt, 
the blackberry dries very slowly, and under present condi- 
tions, at least, there seems to be little promise that it 
can be profitably grown for evaporating purposes. The 
quality of dried blackberries is low. They seem to be 
lacking in sugar and pronounced qualities. 

The value of the blackberry in household uses is not 
fully appreciated. Ancient writers were inclined to lay 
great stress on the medicinal qualities of all plants and 
fruits, and while we are wont to smile at many of the sup- 
posed virtues there recorded, we might well profit by 
studying more closely the uses and virtues of the black- 
berry. The value of blackberry wine or brandy in bowel 
troubles is well known. It is reported that blackberries 
preserved in one of these forms were found by army sur- 



106 Bush-Fruits 

geons to be the only sure and sovereign remedy against 
chronic diarrhoea, proving effectual whenever taken in 
time, even after all other medicines had failed. If the 
previously prepared wine or brandy is not available, the 
water from blackberry roots freshly dug and steeped, will 
usually serve the purpose equally well. This, though an 
old-time household remedy, has lost none of its effective- 
ness with the passage of time. 

Various recipes are given for the manufacture of wine, 
one of which is quoted from an early edition of "The 
Gardener's Monthly." "Express the juice through a 
thick cloth, to prevent any pulp mixing with it. To one 
quart of juice add two quarts of soft water (cold) and three 
pounds of sugar. Let it then stand in a wide-mouthed 
vessel, until fermentation ceases, which will be sometimes 
after two months. Be careful while fermentation is going 
on to keep the film skimmed clear from the top of the 
liquid daily, and to keep the vessel full to the top. A small 
vessel of the liquid should be kept for filling up the large 
vessels as the skimmings are removed. When fermenta- 
tion ceases, strain the wine into bottles. The wine keeps 
better in large quantities, and to that end put it into large 
stone jugs, corking and sealing them." 

Another recipe adds a quart of boiling water to every 
gallon of the crushed fruit, before expressing the juice, 
instead of adding cold water afterwards. It also adds the 
white of eggs beaten to a froth and stirred into the juice; 
spices are also enclosed in a cloth bag, and dropped into it. 

Formerly there was a market for good blackberry wine 
for medicinal uses, at $2 to $3 a gallon, and if a glut of 
fresh fruit occurred, it could be turned into wine to good 



Lessening the Effects of Drought 107 

advantage. In recent years this seems to have been 
largely replaced in practice by other medicines and stimu- 
lants, and there is little demand for it. 

Probably the greatest value of the blackberry is not 
so much as a medicine to cure disease, as in its healthful- 
ness when used as a food. Perhaps nothing is more con- 
ducive to health and good spirits than fresh, well-ripened 
fruit, and among all fruits there is none better adapted to 
accomplish this much wished for end than the bright, 
shining, and luscious blackberry. No home should be 
without it in abundance. 

LESSENING THE EFFECTS OF DROUGHT 

Blackberries ripen at a season of the year when soil 
moisture is likely to be much depleted. Hot suns and 
drying winds are making heavy demands on the plant 
which in turn seeks this moisture from the soil. The 
plants carry a heavy crop of fruit which must be refined 
and perfected just when weather conditions, in the average 
season, are at their worst. All these conditions tend to 
make droughts one of the most important factors with 
which to be reckoned in blackberry growing. It therefore 
seems wise to discuss the methods which may be used to 
reduce the injury from this cause. 

The character of the soil and its drainage are matters 
of first consideration. Dry sandy or gravelly soils should 
never be chosen. No soil which lacks moisture is suitable. 
Neither will a wet soil do; one which is deep and continu- 
ally moist but not wet is the ideal. Artificial drainage 
will sometimes be needed to secure the desired result. 



108 Bush-Fruits 

The exposure of the field to sun and wind will affect the 
amount of water which the plant takes from the soil. 
Evaporation is dependent on sunlight, wind velocity and 
atmospheric humidity. The latter factor cannot be con- 
trolled, but a northern exposure and protection from pre- 
vailing winds by natural or artificial windbreaks will in- 
fluence the others. 

The next need is so to fit and prepare the soil, by its 
previous treatment, as to embody in it the greatest pos- 
sible amount of decaying vegetable matter (humus). 
Some material always rotting in the soil should be the 
aim. This, more than any other one factor, will help the 
soil to store up moisture for that trying time when it is 
so much needed. 

The soil preparation should be deep and thorough. 
Water must often be taken up quickly or lost. Good 
tillage, both before and after planting, helps to bring this 
about. 

The amount of plant-food in the soil may greatly in- 
fluence the effect of drought. Experiments have shown 
that plants growing on a soil lacking in plant-food, require 
many more pounds of water to produce a pound of dry 
matter than when growing on a soil which is rich. Ap- 
parently the soil solution from the poor soil is weaker and 
more is needed. This point should not be overlooked. 

Frequent surface tillage or thorough mulching, together 
with keeping down weed growth, are the most available 
methods for preventing the waste of soil moisture during 
the growing season. Two lines of effort are open in deal- 
ing with the moisture problem. The first consists in 
putting the soil in condition to store up moisture; the 



Removing the Plants 109 

second in preventing the waste of that moisture. Tillage 
and mulching have to do with the latter. 

Pruning may also influence the effect of drought. By 
it the amount of fruit which the plant will carry is largely 
determined. If given too heavy a load the plant is unable 
properly to develop it all in a dry season. The method 
of training used may also have some influence. 

DUEATION OF PLANTATIONS 

The profitable duration of a blackberry plantation, 
as with all other small fruits, depends much on care and 
management. They generally last longer than black 
raspberries, perhaps from five to ten years on the average, 
longer in special cases. Attempts to lengthen the lifetime 
of a fruit plantation of any kind are rarely profitable. 
It is better to force the plants to do their best, get what 
can be gotten from them before they begin to decline, 
then let them go, to be replaced by others. If by one 
system of management a plant can be induced to produce 
as much in three years as it ordinarily would in five, 
the three-year return is to be preferred, even if at the 
end of that time the plant is exhausted and no longer 
profitable. Others are ready to take its place, on other 
ground, and to continue the high-pressure production. 
The greater the yield, within limits, the greater the profit 
and the more fun to be had from the business. 

REMOVING THE PLANTS 

When a plantation has passed its usefulness it may 
become a difficult task to get rid of it. The capacity of 



110 Bush-Fruits 

the plants for throwing up shoots from broken roots is 
then brought into full play, and they make a vigorous 
fight for life. A good method of exterminating them is to 
mow off and burn the bushes, then plow deep, directly 
after fruiting. Thorough harrowing with a spring-tooth 
harrow will tear out many of the stumps. From that 
time, all shoots should be kept down by some system of 
cultivation which will cut them off below the surface of 
the ground. Replowing some two months later will often 
be found a help. While some shoots may appear the fol- 
lowing year, with this system of treatment they will cause 
no serious trouble in the cultivation of ordinary crops. If 
the land is to be used for fine or delicate crops, the stumps 
will need to be removed. 

HAKDINESS 

Since the difference between a full crop, with good 
profits, and no crop, with utter loss, may depend on hardi- 
ness alone, this is a matter of no little importance. In 
the climate of central New York varieties like Brunton's 
Early, Topsy, and usually Wilson's Early and Wilson 
Junior, generally kill to the ground every winter, while 
Taylor, Agawam, Stone's Hardy, Snyder, and so on are 
slightly or not at all injured. 

In many parts of the West and Northwest, as Colorado, 
Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, and the like, no varieties 
prove hardy without winter protection and, curiously 
enough, the matter of selection for hardiness becomes of 
less import there than in milder climates. The ability to 
endure summer heat is there the important consideration. 



Yields 111 

If plants are to remain unprotected during the winter, the 
selection of varieties should be largely influenced by the 
question of hardiness. The method of protection is de- 
scribed in the introductory chapter. 

YIELDS 

Blackberries generally yield better than other members 
of the bramble family. Not only do they yield well when 
growing wild among the rocks and woods, and even under 
worse conditions which may sometimes pass under the 
name of cultivation, but they respond promptly and 
generously to liberal care and attention. In answer to a 
request for an estimate of what each considered an aver- 
age yield to the acre of blackberries, fifty growers in differ- 
ent parts of the country gave replies varying from 1,280 
to 10,000 quarts, the average being 3,158 quarts, or over 
ninety-eight bushels to the acre. These figures, obtained 
from practical growers, are worthy of credence. Some 
of the estimates are very high, but others are extremely 
low, and the average is considerably below the yield which 
many good growers are securing. It is safe to say, there- 
fore, that any grower whose yields fall much below this 
average is not living up to his possibilities, and unless 
some uncontrollable disease or insect is preying upon his 
plantation, there is something wrong with his system of 
management, or his location is unfavorable. 

A point which those engaged in all lines of agricul- 
tural production need to appreciate, is that the bulk of 
any crop is required to defray the actual cost of produc- 
tion, and that profit lies only beyond this limit. As an 



112 Bush-Fruits 

illustration, suppose that by ordinary methods of culti- 
vation an acre of blackberries produces seventy bushels, 
and that sixty bushels are required to repay the cost of 
production. Now, if by judiciously increasing the cost 
of production to seventy bushels, by more liberal fertiliz- 
ing or better cultivation, we can increase the yield to 
ninety bushels, the profit is doubled. Nor does this fully 
express the difference, for with an additional expense equiv- 
alent to ten bushels, we have secured an additional 
profit of ten bushels, and the additional outlay has paid 
a return of one hundred per cent on the investment, while 
the first ten bushels only pay sixteen and two-thirds per 
cent on the investment. In other words, one acre under 
the second management is better than two acres under 
the first, for it is equivalent to growing the second acre 
with an outlay equal to only ten bushels, instead of an 
outlay equal to sixty bushels. 

It should be remembered that soil and climate play 
an important part in returns. To secure a yield of 5000 
quarts under some conditions is easier than to secure 3000 
quarts under other conditions. The lesson of adaptation 
is one not easily learned. Many growers are struggling 
along with meager returns because they are dealing with 
an unproductive soil, or because they are trying to bring 
about something for which the locality is not well adapted. 
The blackberry is not a fruit which is universally success- 
ful. In some localities its culture may prove very success- 
ful as a commercial undertaking, in others very unsatis- 
factory. The question of adaptability should be one of 
the first points to determine. 



Profits 113 



PROFITS 

To foretell profits in farming operations is a difficult 
undertaking. The facts involved are too variable. Few 
growers keep records, or know what their crops cost. 
Of those who do, not many put the results in print. Sug- 
gestions must, therefore, be chiefly in the nature of es- 
timates. While intended to be fairly reliable for average 
conditions, they may be far afield for any given farm or 
crop. The following figures may be taken as a rough 
estimate of the cost of production per acre under ordinary 
farm conditions. 

First Year 

Rent of Land $ 5.00 

Plowing and fitting the field 5 .00 

Plants 15.00 

Planting 10.00 

Fertilizer ! 20.00 

Tillage and care 10.00 

$65.00 

1 Under some conditions this may be omitted altogether the 
first season. 

It is customary to consider that part of this cost is 
offset by the return from crops planted between the rows 
the year the plants are set. Whether this should be done, 
depends chiefly on the point of view. Something can be 
secured from the land by the use of inter-crops, and it is 
generally wise to use them. Yet it should be remembered 
that the crop would have been larger and would have been 



114 Bush-Fruits 

produced at less expense to the unit if it had occupied the 
entire ground. It may be as appropriate, to charge to 
the blackberries the additional yield of the crop which 
might have been produced, as to credit them with what was 
obtained. The reader may choose his own method of 
figuring. 

At least four profitable crops of fruit may be expected 
from the plantation. It will therefore be appropriate to 
apportion this first year's outlay to these crops. The 
cost for subsequent years, exclusive of picking and 
marketing, may then be estimated somewhat as follows : 

Proportion of first year's expense .$16.25 

Rent of land 5.00 

Fertilizer 20.00 

Cultivation and hoeing 10 . 00 

Pruning and removing old canes 10 . 00 

Total $61.25 

The partial crop, which may be expected the second 
year, should about meet expenses. After the first year, it 
is fair to assume that an average of 3,000 quarts to the 
acre should be secured, with favorable soil and climate. 
The profit will then depend on the net price a quart which 
it is possible to secure, after meeting the expenses of pick- 
ing, packing, and marketing. With a net price of five 
cents a quart the profit would be about $90 an acre, with 
the cost of production as assumed above. 

In connection with these figures, is presented the fol- 
lowing close estimate at one time made by M. A. Thayer, 
of Sparta, Wisconsin. They serve to show what it is pos- 



Profits 115 

sible for a thorough-going, energetic man to do under 

special conditions, and with methods worked out and 
adapted to his own needs. 

One Acre — First Year 

Plowing ground $ 1 . 50 

Harrowing five times 2 . 50 

Rolling and marking 1 .00 

2,000 Ancient Briton plants 40.00 

Setting plants 7 . 50 

Cultivating ten times 3 . 75 

Hoeing six times 6 .00 

Laying down for winter 2 . 50 

First year's expense $64 . 75 

Second Year 

Taking up plants in spring $ 1 .25 

400 new plants to replace dead ones 8.00 

Setting 400 plants 2.00 

60 posts at six cents 3 . 60 

270 stakes at two cents 5 . 40 

380 rods No. 12 wire 12.60 

Setting posts and stakes 5 . 00 

Stringing wire 2 . 50 

Cultivating ten times 3 . 75 

Hoeing four times 4 . 00 

Two loads clover mulching 8 . 00 

Placing clover mulching 3 . 15 

Pinching-back 2 . 50 

Laying down for winter 7 . 50 

Use of tools, etc 6.00 

Total for two years $140.00 



116 Bush-Fruits 

After the second year the annual expense is estimated 
as follows: 

Taking up plants in the spring $ 2 . 50 

Cultivating and hoeing 8 . 00 

Mulching 12.00 

Nipping-back and trimming 5 .00 

Laying down for winter 7.50 

Tools, etc 5.00 

$40.00 

The estimates for labor are made on the basis of paying 
$1.25 a day for men and $2.50 a day for a man and team. 
The system of mulching, as elsewhere explained, consists 
in growing clover on separate pieces of ground, cutting 
and spreading it green along the rows, and cultivating 
the center. The expenses of gathering and marketing, 
Thayer places as follows: 

Picking per quart $0,013^ 

Boxes and cases 01 

Packing and selling 01 



Total expense per quart. $0.03/^ 

Thayer admits that these figures show a high cost of 
production, but feels confident that any reduction means 
diminished profits, therefore is not to be permitted. This 
method of treatment gave over 2,000 bushels from ten 
acres of the Ancient Briton variety in one year. This is a 
remarkable yield, but the average on those farms is un- 
questionably far above that of most growers. Thayer 



The Evergreen Blackberries 117 

concludes that under their conditions at that time, a 
yield of 200 bushels an acre gave a net profit of nearly 
an acre, while 100 bushels an acre would give about 
profit, and fifty bushels to the acre little or no profit 
at all. 

Instances are common of admirable yields during a 
single season. One grower in a small town in central 
New York sold $500 worth of fruit from half an acre in a 
recent year. It should be firmly fixed in mind that all 
such results are exceptional, and no one should use them 
as a basis for average profits. 

It may safely be said, however, that with a good market, 
good management, intelligence and skill, both in growing 
and marketing the fruit, a profit of $100 an acre can be 
expected with a fair degree of certainty under conditions 
of soil and climate which will warrant the growing of. 
blackberries as a commercial venture. 

THE EVERGREEN BLACKBERRIES 

Mention should be made of the evergreen type of black- 
berries grown in some localities on the Pacific coast. These 
are so different in habit that the methods of treatment 
demanded have little in common. The leaves of the 
plant are much divided, which accounts for the name 
cut-leaved blackberry, which is often applied to it. The 
thorns are numerous, strong and recurved, making it a 
troublesome plant to handle. The chief difference be- 
tween this species and the common blackberries lies in its 
long trailing habit of growth and in the fact that the canes 
live from year to year. These canes grow upright for a 



118 Bush-Fruits 

short distance then bend over and trail along the ground, 
reaching a length of 25 to 50 feet. 

A method of handling which is found satisfactory is to 
set the plants in rows eight feet apart, and from eight to 
sixteen feet apart in the row, according to variety. The 
Himalaya and Mammoth varieties are more rampant 
growers than the Evergreen. A trellis is provided with 
two wires, which are placed from three to five feet from 
the ground. The growing canes are first trained along 
the lower wire, two or three in each direction. They 
are bent gradually and carefully tied as they grow, the 
aim being to prevent the growth of laterals as much as 
possible. In winter or spring, these long canes are cut 
back about one-third. Bearing shoots are thrown out 
along the remaining part as in the Kniffen system of 
grape training. The plant is renewed from year to year 
much as are grape vines. The new canes are usually 
trained along one wire and the fruiting ones along the 
other. 

Under favorable conditions, plants of this type are said 
to yield much better than ordinary kinds. The fruit is 
said to be firm and to bear shipping well. Himalaya and 
Mammoth are reported as ripening shortly after the logan- 
berry and about with Kittatinny and Snyder, the Ever- 
green later. 

Varieties of this type have been tried from time to time 
in the eastern states but seem never to have shown any 
value except in limited areas along the Pacific coast where 
soil and climate suit their peculiar needs. 

The Mammoth, at least, is more properly classed as a 
dewberry, and is discussed under that head. 



CHAPTER V 

THE DEWBERRIES 

The dewberry as a cultivated fruit has been a relatively 
recent introduction to American horticulture. 

At the summer meeting of the Fruit-Growers' Society 
of Western New York, held June 24, 1863, James Vick 
described the dewberries grown by Dr. Miner, of Honeoye 
Falls, New York, and his method of training them. This 
was the same as the present method of tying the fruiting 
canes to stakes about five feet high, and allowing the new 
growth to run at will, most of which will root at the tips. 
He was growing two varieties, one of which was some ten 
days earlier than the other. Mention is made of the 
fact that the berries of the earlier variety were sometimes 
imperfect, "'a common fault with the dewberry." The 
other variety appeared to bear uniformly perfect berries. 1 
From a later mention of these varieties 2 it seems that 
they were sent out by Dr. Miner to some extent, but there 
is no evidence that they ever received varietal names, 
and therefore they were probably soon lost to cultivation. 

It appears that the Bartel was the first named variety 
introduced. The originator's account of this, together 
with directions for its management, were given in Purdy's 
Fruit Recorder for 1875, p. 182. It does not appear to 

1 Hovey's Mag. of Hort. 1863, p. 319. 

2 Ibid, 1868, p. 286. 

119 



120 Bush-Fruits 

have become very generally known at that time, for in 
1879 the editor of "The Gardener's Monthly" writes, 1 
" Of true dewberries, no improved kinds are known under 
culture." In a previous number of the same volume, 
however, N. H. Lindsay, of Bridgeport, Connecticut, is 
reported as having cultivated two kinds of wild dew- 
berries in a small way for home use, taking plants from 
the woods. It seems that even he did not know how to 
propagate them, although a nurseryman and presumably 
an experienced propagator. 

Even as late as 1884 the editor of " The Country Gentle- 
man" says (page 329): "We are not aware that the dew- 
berry (or running brier) is cultivated for sale by any 
nurseryman. . . . The wild dewberry is often found 
along neglected fence-rows or in rocky or sterile fields, 
from which, if desired, it may be transplanted to gardens, 
and treated like garden raspberries." These statements 
serve to show how recent is the cultivation of the dew- 
berry in anything like a commercial extent. It was not 
until the introduction of the Lucretia, which was brought 
into general notice about 1886, that the dewberry began 
to occupy any prominent place in American horticulture. 

So much for the history of the dewberry. But what 
of its future? Is there a place for it among our garden 
fruits; and, if so, will it be able to fill that place as it 
should? Coming, as it does, so early in the season, before 
the first blackberries are ripe, it is more desirable than it 
otherwise would be. Until improved by breeding and se- 

1 Gardener's Monthly, Vol. 21, p. 150. See Bailey, Bui. 34, 
Cornell Exp. Sta., for a sketch of dewberry history; also " Evolution 
of our Native Fruits." 



The Dewberries 121 

lection it can hardly fill the place which its co-laborers 
in the garden are ready to accede to it. Unless it can be 
induced to correct some of its bad habits and overcome its 
failings, the place is even yet likely to be taken by some 
young, vigorous and early-ripening blackberry. One 
serious though excusable fault of the dewberry is its thorni- 
ness. While lack of fertilization and consequent produc- 
tion of imperfect fruit can hardly be denied as a family 
trait, it is no doubt true that the more productive mem- 
bers have suffered unjustly, owing to the behavior of the 
rogues of the household. There is no disputing the fact 
that stock of the Lucretia dewberry, as sold about the 
country, has been badly mixed. As received and grown 
at the Cornel] gardens, it comprised two distinct sorts, one 
with small blossoms, more delicate growth, and small, 
imperfect and worthless fruit; the other with large blos- 
soms, vigorous growth, large, plump and glossy fruit. 
The cuts (Figs. 13 and 14) well illustrate the difference 
between these two types, which is in itself a ready explana- 
tion of many of the conflicting opinions regarding the 
Lucretia. 

By taking the best of what we already have as a basis 
for future improvement, there seems to be no reason why 
the dewberry may not be brought to such a state of per- 
fection as shall render its place assured. In the Wilson's 
Early and Wilson Junior blackberries we have a type 
intermediate between the dewberry and the blackberry. 
This form may suggest lines of breeding which in time 
shall produce offspring superior to anything which we 
now have, either in the blackberry or the dewberry. We 
need more careful and skillful breeders, who shall breed 



122 



Bush-Fruits 




Fig. 13. Lucretia dewberry from a good plant. 



The Dewberries 



123 




Fig. 14. Lucretia dewberry from a poor plant. One-half natural size. 

plants as understandingly as animals are bred, and who 
shall give us in the results of their toil the fruit treasures 
which ought ere this to have been ours. 

In this particular field of endeavor the Pacific coast 
has outstripped the East. 



124 Bush-Fruits 



SOIL FOR DEWBERRIES 

The dewberry is generally found on poor or sandy soils 
the country over. This is an indication that compara- 
tively light, sandy soils will prove best adapted to its 
cultivation, and the general experience of growers seems 
to substantiate the supposition. It is true that instances 
are reported of success from nearly all kinds of soils, but 
the best results nearly always come from planting on com- 
paratively light, sandy ground. 

LOCATION 

The location will doubtless prove to be as important 
as with any other fruit, when the culture of dewberries 
comes to be better understood. In parts of the West, 
the Windom has been found to give better results in shady 
locations, the finest berries being found even in dense 
shade. Because of its habit of growing on dry, sandy 
ground, location to avoid drought may not be so important 
as with the blackberry, but any location, like a cool 
northern exposure, which will tend to mitigate the hot, 
scorching sun, will undoubtedly prove beneficial. 

FERTILIZERS 

Thus far the necessity for fertilizers has hardly been 
made apparent, and it is doubtful whether at the time of 
planting they will often be needed. If plants bear as they 
should, the addition of plant-food later may be expected 
to be of service on many soils. The same principles 
which apply to the feeding of blackberries may be expected 



Planting 125 

to hold. On average soils the demand for nitrogen is likely 
to be small. 

PROPAGATION 

The dewberry propagates naturally from tips, like the 
black raspberry. If increase of plants is important, these 
tips should be buried when their growth is about com- 
pleted. Covering the whole cane to induce rooting along 
its entire length would seem to be feasible, if speedy 
methods are desired. Such a cane cut into pieces should 
form many plants; and the prostrate habit of the plant 
would favor such a method. 

Dewberries can also be propagated by root-cuttings, 
the same as blackberries. The method for doing this is 
explained in the chapter on blackberries. Since it is a 
general rule that those plants which naturally propagate 
by suckers also propagate most easily by root-cuttings, 
a little more care may be demanded, and a larger percent- 
age of failure may be expected than with blackberries. 

PLANTING 

The same general rules given for the planting of the 
blackberry will apply to the dewberry, except that the 
furrow to receive the plants need not be quite so deep. 
The distance apart at which they are to be placed will be 
largely determined by the method of training to be em- 
ployed. If to be trained to single stakes, four feet apart 
each way will be satisfactory; if to wire trellises, six feet 
by perhaps three feet in the row will be more convenient. 
If to be trained on low, flat, slat or wire trellises, even 
a greater distance between the rows will be needed. This 



126 Bush-Fruits 

method demands more space for training the plants than 
is needed for their maintenance. 

The tendency of dewberries to fail to set fruit altogether, 
or to produce small and imperfect fruit, is a point which 
should be taken into consideration when planting. There 
is reason to believe that this is often due to a lack of proper 
fertilization. Whether this lack of fertilization comes 
from insufficient pollen, or from lack of potency of the 
pollen which reaches the stigma, is uncertain. Whatever 
the cause, the lack is apparent, and the most feasible way 
of overcoming it is by planting different kinds together. 
It has been conclusively shown that the pollen of many 
varieties of our larger fruits, notably pears and apples, 
has not the power to properly fertilize the pistils of the 
same variety. The same may be true of the dewberries. 
At any rate, better results seem to have come from plant- 
ing more than one kind together. Even blackberries 
planted alongside have seemed to produce a favorable 
effect in some cases. One instance is reported * where 
dewberries blossomed full for several years, but produced 
only a few imperfect berries. Later a block of blackberries 
was planted beside them, and when these came into 
bearing, the dewberries began fruiting, and continued 
to do so regularly. This is an indication, though not proof, 
that blackberry pollen may fertilize dewberries. 

TILLAGE 

Little need be said concerning the tillage of the dew- 
berry. Some growers even advise letting the plants grow 
1 Trans. 111. Hort. Soc, 1886, 382. 



Pruning and Training , 127 

entirely without cultivation or care. This method can 
hardly recommend itself, unless it be on some rough, 
uncultivable and otherwise unutilized piece of ground. 
As the season advances, the young canes spread out over 
the ground and tend to interfere with cultivation. It 
is only necessary to direct them along the row, like straw- 
berry runners, however, and continue the cultivation but 
one way, if the plants are so set as to admit of cultivation 
both ways earlier. 

PRUNING AND TRAINING 

Very little pruning is required. Simply to shorten the 
canes when they are tied up in spring, if too long, is all 
that is necessary, unless there is a tendency to produce 
too many canes, when all but four or five should be re- 
moved. With any careful system of cultivation some 
method of training is essential. Various plans have been 
recommended from time to time, only part of which are 
here mentioned. 

One plan consists of a low, flat trellis, of greater or less 
width, eight or ten inches from the ground, on which the 
plants are allowed to run. This may be a narrow one of 
wire, made by driving stakes into the ground, ten or twelve 
feet apart, and nailing strips of boards a foot or more 
long, across the top. On these cross-strips wires are drawn 
tightly, one at each end and usually two between. An- 
other way of reaching the same end is to fasten pieces of 
boards to stakes, running the boards lengthwise of the 
row, one on either side, and nailing slats across between 
them. Such a low, flat trellis raises the fruit off the 



128 Bush-Fruits 

ground and keeps it clean, but picking is inconvenient and 
cultivation is more difficult. 

A second plan consists in training to an upright wire 
trellis, after the manner of grapes. The young canes are 
allowed to run on the ground, and are tied up to the 
wires the following spring. This is a very satisfactory 
method, although it admits of cultivation only one way. 

A most simple and satisfactory plan is the one which 
was recommended by A. J. Caywood as early as 1888. 1 
Let his own words explain it : 

"I plant them as I do red raspberries, four feet apart 
each way, cultivating both ways until the fore part of 
June, when the renewals get too long to do so. We then 
direct the renewals of each row along the bottoms of the 
hills, and cultivate the other way as long as required, and 
one man has done the directing of our patch in a day. 
The old canes are taken from the stakes any time after 
the fruit is off, before tying up in the spring. The re- 
newals are left on the ground all winter, which is suf- 
ficient protection here, but if it is necessary to protect 
them in colder regions, their prostrate position facilitates 
the work. 

"In the spring, one draws the entire hill from under 
the other hills' in the row, and holds them to a stake, 
while a boy ties them tightly. This can be done as rapidly 
as tying red raspberries. I think my patch was the first 
managed on this plan. We have tried the windrow sys- 
tem, but like staking the plants better." 

If the old canes are cut away as soon as through fruit- 
ing, the young ones can then be tied to the stake until 
1 Popular Gardening, Vol. IV, p. 33. 



Killing out the Patch 129 

winter, and cultivation go on unimpeded. This may 
favor a better development and maturity of the canes 
than when they are allowed to run on the ground. 

HARVESTING AND MARKETING 

Whatever applies to the harvesting and marketing of 
blackberries will apply equally well to dewberries, except 
that, coming earlier, they have the market more nearly 
to themselves. The vines are viciously thorny, and the 
fruit apt to be so concealed within them as to render the 
picking difficult and painful. Training the plants to a 
stake or trellis will in part obviate this difficulty. 

The fruit carries well, and can be put into market in 
good condition. Like many of the blackberries, though 
perhaps in a more marked degree, it has the habit of turn- 
ing black before it is ripe. If picked then it is sour and 
undesirable; for home market it should be allowed to get 
thoroughly ripe before being gathered. 

DURATION OF PLANTATIONS 

Dewberries persist well in the soil, sometimes too well, 
for after they have served their purpose, it is often difficult 
to get rid of them. They seem often to be unproductive 
for the first two or three years, afterward coming into 
more uniform and prolific bearing, and continuing in 
many cases for a number of years. 

KILLING OUT THE PATCH 

When it becomes necessary to rid a plot of ground of 
thenij vigorous measures must be adopted. While they 



130 Bush-Fruits 

do not propagate naturally by suckers, yet when the roots 
are torn and broken, pieces which are left in the ground 
have a remarkable ability for bursting forth into plants. 
The method advised for destroying the blackberry is the 
best that can be recommended for killing off dewberries; 
namely, mowing and plowing directly after fruiting, fre- 
quent cultivation afterwards, and replowing before winter. 

HAEDINESS 

The inherent hardiness of the dewberry may not be 
equal to that of many varieties of the blackberry, yet its 
habit of growth tends to afford it protection which enables 
it to withstand the cold of winter, in most cases, as well 
as the blackberries. If not entirely hardy in some locali- 
ties, the ease with which it can be protected in winter is 
certainly a point in its favor. The older canes will nat- 
urally be cut away before winter, and in any event the 
protection of them is of no benefit. The young canes, 
which lie directly on the ground, and which have been 
trained along the row in cultivating, are in the most con- 
venient position possible for being covered with soil or 
mulch. In parts of the country where all kinds must be 
protected to give profitable results, this is really a point 
of considerable importance in favor of the dewberry. 

YIELD OF DEWBERRIES 

The yield to be expected is one of the moot points in 
dewberry culture. There is the greatest possible diversity 
in reports, some growers finding it highly satisfactory, 



The Western Dewberries 131 

while others are disgusted with it. Much of this diversity 
of opinion, and much of the failure to secure good results 
is without doubt, due to the mixed and inferior character 
of many of the plants which have been sold. Even where 
they succeed, they have not been grown very extensively 
as a rule, and any reliable estimate of an average yield 
can hardly be formed. 

PROBABLE PROFITS 

With the question of yield so much in doubt, the ques- 
tion of profit must also be unsettled. It may be said 
however, that those who succeed in obtaining a good yield 
nearly always find them profitable, owing to their season 
ot ripening and consequent high price. 

THE WESTERN DEWBERRIES 

On the Pacific Coast, varieties of the dewberry class 
have attained great commercial importance. The Ever- 
green blackberry (see page 117), owing to its habit of 
growth may be readily classed among the dewberries But 
the loganberry and the Mammoth, seedlings of the native 
western dewberry (Rubus vitif alius), have become most 
prominent. Both of these varieties were originated by 
Judge J. H. Logan of Santa Cruz, California, from seeds 
of the western dewberry taken from plants growing beside 
an old variety of red raspberry and the Texas Early black- 
berry. This blackberry is an upright species which in 
the mild climate of California, possesses the charac- 
teristics of an evergreen. 



132 Bush-Fruits 

The loganberry has been thought to be a hybrid between 
the western dewberry and the European red raspberry. 
The fruit is large and early, ripening from about the mid- 
dle of May to the first of June, according to locality. On 
its surface the berry appears like a raspberry and its color 
is a bright glowing red, which changes to a dull purplish 
red when fully ripe. It has a core, and parts from the 
calyx like a blackberry. The plant possesses all the char- 
acteristics of the wild dewberry, but is even more vigor- 
ous. It roots at the tips and never throws up suckers. 
It bears heavily, as much as twenty-five pounds having 
been gathered from a single plant. The fruit is of good 
quality and popular, having reached much commercial 
importance. Phases of dewberry culture are illustrated 
in Plates IV and VI. 

While very successful in the far West, especially in 
southern California and the central Coast Region, the 
loganberry does not thrive in the East. Its growth is 
easily stimulated by warm weather, then is killed by 
succeeding cold weather. Even if the plant survives the 
winter the blossoms are likely to be caught by spring 
frosts. 

Judge Logan believes the Mammoth dewberry to be a 
cross between the dewberry and the Early Texas black- 
berry. Its fruit is similar to that of the wild dewberry, 
except in size, being very large, sometimes reaching a 
length of two and one-half inches. It is jet black in color, 
less acid than the loganberry, and ripens some two weeks 
later. It is described as sweet and delicious when thor- 
oughly ripe, better than the loganberry for eating raw, 
but less desirable when cooked and utterly insipid in 



The Western Dewberries 133 

shortcake. The plant is a rampant grower. Judge Logan 
tells of a plant on his grounds which grew in one season, 
one cane with one hundred and forty-nine feet of fruiting 
wood. It produces heavily in the land of its origin and 
is an important *fruit along the coast. Apparently it does 
not thrive in the eastern states. 



CHAPTER VI 

MISCELLANEOUS BRAMBLES 

While raspberries, blackberries and dewberries of the 
types which we have described in the foregoing chapters 
are the only brambles of much commercial importance 
in this country, there are nevertheless a few outlying types 
to which we may profitably give attention. 

THE ORIENTAL RASPBERRIES 

At least four species of oriental or Japanese raspberries 
have found their way into the United States, the best 
known probably being the one reintroduced a few years 
ago under the name of Japanese wineberry. They have 
proved less valuable than many other Japanese fruits, 
and have little to recommend them. They are not likely 
to become popular nor to be grown to any great extent, 
though two of them have some value as ornamental 
plants. 

The mayberry (Japan golden mayberry). — This was 
raised by Luther Burbank, of California, and is said to 
have been produced from seeds of Rubus palmatus, a 
Japanese species, crossed with the Cuthbert raspberry. 
It is claimed to produce a bush six to eight feet high, 
bearing numerous large white blossoms, which are fol- 
lowed by "large, sweet, glossy, golden, semi-transparent 

134 



The Oriental Raspberries 135 

berries," which ripen in advance of strawberries. It ap- 
pears to have developed little value as yet. The writer 
was unable to make this plant live in Nebraska some years 
ago. 

The strawberry-raspberry. — This peculiar fruit belongs 
to a species found wild in Japan, China and the East 
Indies, and known to botanists as Rubus roscefolius, or 
to a closely related species, Rubus illecebrosus. It has 
been commonly referred to in horticultural literature under 
the name R. sorbifolius, but this appears to be only a 
synonym of the latter name. The double form of this 
same species has been long known as a greenhouse plant, 
cultivated for its flowers, though apparently but little 
grown. As recently introduced from Japan under the 
name strawberry-raspberry, it is of interest chiefly as a 
curiosity, and may be worth growing for that purpose or 
as an ornamental plant. It is herbaceous in our climate, 
dying down to the ground each winter and springing up 
from the roots in spring. It throws up innumerable 
suckers, making a perfect mat of bright colored foliage. 
The leaves have a central stalk with five to seven oppo- 
site narrow leaflets, and are really very pretty. The mat 
of plants is so dense that it will keep down nearly all 
weeds, and the plants continue to bloom and fruit through- 
out the greater portion of the season. The blossoms are 
white, pretty and sweet-scented, and the berries bright 
and showy, a clump of the plants making an attractive 
bed. It is unproductive, and the fruit in its fresh state is 
rather unpalatable, varying from sour and insipid to 
somewhat bitter. When cooked, however, it is said to 
develop a pleasant flavor midway between the strawberry 



136 Bush-Fruits 

and the raspberry, and to give a brilliant, rich garnet 
color to the syrup. 

The wineberry (Japanese wineberry). — This is a rasp- 
berry which is found wild in the mountains of central and 
northern Japan. Its botanical name, now well known, is 
Rubus phcenicolasius. It forms a bush three to seven 
feet high, with somewhat spreading and rambling canes, 
which are thickly covered with bright red hairs and weak 
prickles, standing out at right angles to the stem. The 
leaves are light green and whitish below. The flowers 
are very small, white, with large, hairy, viscous sepals, 
which close over the fruit again after blooming and keep 
it entirely covered until about ripening time, when they 
again open. The berry is then white, but turns bright 
red within two or three days, becoming sweet and agree- 
able; said to be somewhat intermediate in flavor between 
the red and the black raspberry. Seeds were sent from 
Japan to J. T. Lovett, in the summer of 1887, by C. C. 
Georgeson. In 1889 the stock raised from this seed was 
sold to John Lewis Childs, who introduced it under the 
name of Japanese wineberry. 1 The berry is of good size, 
firm and handsome, and owing to its peculiar covering is 
exempt from insect attacks. It has not shown any real 
commercial value in the United States, being generally 
tender and unproductive. It is a peculiar and attractive 
plant, and well worth growing as an ornamental. It had 
been known in this country and sold under its true bo- 
tanical name by Ellwanger & Barry, and perhaps by other 
nurserymen, long before its dissemination by Mr. Childs. 
It was described in "The Gardener's Monthly" for 
1 Amer. Gar., 1891, 204. 



The Oriental Raspberries 



137 




Rubus cratcegifolius (X 2 /s)- 



January, 1880, and received soon after by the editor, 
Thomas Meehan, under the name Rubus Hoffmeisteriana. 
The Chinese raspberry (Rubus cratcegifolius) (Fig. 15). — 
This raspberry possesses little value as a fruit-producing 
plant, but makes a handsome ornamental shrub, and is 
well worth growing for that purpose. Its flowers are in- 
conspicuous, but its foliage and habit are attractive, and 



138 Bush-Fruits 

its autumn coloring is often superb. It is more fully de- 
scribed among the ornamental species. 

Rubus xanthocarpus was introduced by the United States 
Department of Agriculture as a fruit-bearing plant but 
seems not to have proved valuable. 

ORNAMENTAL SPECIES 

We are accustomed to think of the members of this 
family only as fruit-producing plants, yet many of them 
possess considerable attractiveness as ornamentals, and 
are worthy of a place in any grounds. Some of them are 
beautiful in themselves, especially if grown in free and 
natural clumps, but more especially are they valuable for 
grouping with other trees and shrubs. Many of the most 
desirable species are natives of America, and possibly be- 
cause of this are better appreciated in Europe than here. 
We are wont to pass by beautiful things growing at our 
doors for something less desirable which comes from a 
tropical or foreign country. 

Rubus odoratus, the purple-flowering raspberry, or 
thimbleberry, is so common throughout the greater por- 
tion of the eastern part of the United States that we 
scarcely think of it as being ornamental. Yet it is a very 
pretty and attractive shrub. It is beautiful both in 
flower and fruit, and doubly desirable because it con- 
tinues its blossoming and fruiting period over so long a 
time. The foliage alone is attractive, regardless of the 
blossoms. This species is frequently mentioned among 
ornamentals in European journals. (Fig. 16.) 

Rubus parviflorus, the Rocky Mountain thimbleberry, 



Ornamental Species 



139 



-erroneously called salmon-berry, is closely related. It is 
better known as R. Nutkanus, but since the former name 
has been found to be the older it must now take the pref- 
erence. This species and its varieties are found in the 
region of the great lakes and westward to the Pacific 




Fig. 16. Rubus odoratus (XM)- 

coast. Its fruit seems to have been rather more important 
in the wild state than that of R. odoratus, but, in general 
the species is much the same, except that the flowers are 
white. Few attempts seem to have been made to culti- 
vate it. If it could be made to succeed well, it would be a 
desirable plant to group with the eastern species. (Fig. 17.) 
The most attractive member of this section of the genus 
is undoubtedly Rubus deliciosus, of the Rocky Mountains. 



140 



Bush-Fruits 




Fig. 17. Rubus parviflorus (X 



This, like the two species already mentioned, has simple 
leaves, three to five-lobed, serrate, but more rounded than 
in those species. The flowers are large, pure white and 
attractive. So far as reported, it has generally proved 
successful, though it does not flourish under the hot sun 
and drying winds in Nebraska. It is worthy of more 



Ornamental Species 



141 



general cultivation 
than it has yet re- 
ceived. It is some- 
what difficult to prop- 
agate, which will 
naturally render it 
more expensive and 
harder to get than it 
otherwise would be. 
There are nurserymen 
in the West, however, 
who make a specialty 
of collecting these 
mountain plants, and 
growing them until 
accustomed to culti- 
vation before offering / 
them for sale, or even 
propagating them 
wholly in the nursery. 
Plants from such 
sources can readily be 
obtained, and will gen- 
erally prove satisfac- 
tory. (Fig. 18.) 

Rubus cratcegifolius 
is an oriental species 
of some ornamental 
value which has been 
grown somewhat in 
this country. Its 
chief merit lies in its 
foliage. The flowers 




Fig. 18. Rubus deliciosus (X 2 '' 3 )- 



142 Bush-Fruits 

are small and inconspicuous, and the fruit small, though 
bright red when ripe. The foliage is dense and bright 
green, coloring well in autumn, and the bush is pleasing 
in its habit of growth. It possesses considerable value as an 
ornamental plant, although there is nothing striking about 
it. It is generally hardy, and will mass well with other 
plants and shrubs. In Nebraska it proved disappointing 
in regard to hardiness, being injured by the winters, even 
when protected. Yet the rich autumn color developed by 
the foliage on the young shoots thrown up from the root 
in spring has offset the loss of the older canes. It is es- 
pecially recommended for holding banks and covering 
waste places. 

Rubus arcticus, though a very pretty little species, 
can hardly be expected to succeed in cultivation. It is 
a native of the far north, and only extends southward 
upon the high mountain ranges. It is the most delicate 
and one of the prettiest members of the family, and would 
be very desirable if it could be grown. 

Rubus phcenicolasius, the "Japanese wineberry," has 
been brought more prominently before the public than 
most other ornamental species (page 136). Its chief at- 
traction lies in the peculiar reddish hairy character of the 
plant. Except in favorable localities, this is all there is to 
recommend it, for the canes are killed to the ground every 
winter, and there are consequently no flowers or fruit. The 
oddity of the fruit is one of its attractive features, when- 
ever any is produced. This is enclosed in the long, bristly 
calyx-lobes until it ripens. It is not well adapted to plant- 
ing in clumps and masses, like most of the species pre- 
viously mentioned. 



Ornamental Species 



143 




Fig. 19. Rubus spectabilis (XM)- 

Rubus spectabilis, the salmon-berry, is a showy member 
of the family, found native from California northward 
along the Pacific coast. It is a vigorous-growing shrub, 
with leaves made up of three sharp-pointed, sharply 
toothed leaflets, or occasionally deeply three-lobed only. 
The flowers are red or purple, large and showy, and the 



144 Bush-Fruits 

fruit large and good, though probably not abundant 
enough to render it worthy of cultivation on that account. 
It seems to succeed well in England, and should do equally 
well in many parts of our own country. It propagates 
rapidly from suckers, and may sometimes need to be held 
in check. It is worthy of thorough trial, for it is really a 
very attractive plant. (Fig. 19.) 

Rubus ladniatus, the cut-leaved blackberry, has been 
brought to notice from time to time as a desirable orna- 
mental, and heralded as a wonderful fruit-bearing plant. 
Its names have been numerous, including Parsley-leaved, 
Oregon Evergreen, Oregon Climbing and Sandwich Is- 
land. Sometimes it has been styled a dewberry, and some- 
times a blackberry. It is interesting from the peculiar 
subdivision of its leaves, and an occasional plant may 
prove useful in certain places, but aside from this feature 
it possesses no ornamental qualities worthy of special 
note. This is a European species, to which Americans 
have given more attention than is given to it across the 
water, though in some localities there it appears to be 
prized for its fruit production. In this country it produces 
little or nothing except along the Pacific coast. For a 
discussion of it in this connection see the chapter on black- 
berries (page 117). The plant is so desperately thorny, 
that to attempt to pick its fruit except where carefully 
trained would be well-nigh hazardous. 

The form commonly offered for sale may be described 
as follows: Stems nearly round, more or less trailing, 
fertile ones erect, prickles small at the base, but recurved 
and strong above, very numerous; leaves much dissected 
and sharply serrate; fruit roundish, black, grains large, 



Ornamental Species 145 

sweet, with a peculiar musky flavor, borne in loose pan- 
icles. It differs from other brambles in the fact that the 
canes, are perennial and continue to bear fruit on the old 
wood. It is best adapted to mild climates. 

The Double White and Double Pink brambles are 
also European species, but they have been long known in 
this country. The flowers are said to resemble miniature 
roses more than they do those of the other members of 
the family. They are reported to be well adapted for use 
as single specimens, and it is only when thus planted, 
giving them a chance for full and symmetrical develop- 
ment, that their beauty is to be fully appreciated. These 
pretty forms have never become so popular and common 
as they deserve to be; apparently they should be better 
known. 

There are several other species, not so well known as 
the above, which may in time prove themselves worthy 
of being planted for ornamental purposes. One of these 
is Rubus thfidus, or fire raspberry, the name applying to 
the bright red color of the foliage in autumn. This has 
been tried at the Arnold arboretum and recommended 
for wider planting. 

Another very interesting species, which possibly might 
succeed here, is Rubus Henryi, from China. It belongs to 
the simple-leaved section of the genus, and is described 
as "a tall, climbing shrub, with deeply three-lobed, thick 
leaves, glabrous above and clothed with a white tomentum 
below; flowers small, red, in terminal racemes." It may 
be that this would prove more interesting to botanists, 
owing to its distinct character, than it would to plant- 
lovers in general. 



146 Bush-Fruits 

From the above list it will be seen that the genus, 
though not considered an ornamental one, is far from being 
destitute of ornamental qualities. In addition to these 
more strictly so-called ornamental features, the fruit- 
producing members of the family possess charms to the 
true lover of fruits which are not to be despised. A well- 
grown row of red raspberries, with the scarlet fruit peeping 
out from among the green foliage, or a row of blackberry 
bushes covered with clusters of shining black berries, is a 
sight so attractive that it will be appreciated by many a 
person on whom the charms of a strictly ornamental 
plant would fall unheeded. It may, indeed, attract the 
attention of the most fastidious. 

A number of other species, chiefly from China, have been 
introduced into cultivation for ornamental purposes, and 
some with the hope of securing fruit of value. Many of 
them are trailing species suitable for training over arbors 
and trellises. Some have ornamental foliage and some 
are evergreen. They have received more attention in 
England but a number of species have been tested at the 
Arnold Arboretum in Massachusetts. Most of them have 
lacked hardiness there. They do not seem therefore to 
offer any great promise to the American plant-lover. 



CHAPTER VII 

VARIETIES OF RASPBERRIES 

To describe the varieties of bush-fruits in such a manner 
that the grower can determine them from the description 
has long since become impossible. Varieties now run into 
the hundreds and differ so little that other means of de- 
termining them must be employed. Yet a brief descrip- 
tion or mention of those varieties known to have been 
grown in America may be of service in several ways. Du- 
plication of names, and consequent confusion are common 
at best. A complete list, readily available, should prevent 

this. 

No more important question confronts the fruit-grower 
than the choice of varieties and few lines of progress will 
contribute more to his success than will careful work in the 
improvement of varieties. A history of varieties, how and 
where they have originated, the sources from which they 
have sprung and the trend of their development is there- 
fore of value in several ways. 

The lists are arranged in two groups, one including the 
black raspberries, the other the red and purple-cane 
varieties. The latter group has become so complex and the 
types so intermingled that it seems unwise to attempt 
longer to keep them separate. 

While the present list cannot be complete, it will con- 
tain the greater number of the varieties which have been 

147 



148 Bush-Fruits 

grown and probably all of those which have become prom- 
inent. 

BLACK RASPBERRIES 

Rubus occidentalis 

Black-caps form the youngest group of raspberries in 
cultivation, but are now the most important. Immense 
strides have been made since Nicholas Longworth first 
transferred the Ohio Everbearing to his dooryard in 1832. 
The species adapts itself so readily to cultivation, and is so 
uniformly hardy and productive, ripening its fruit in a 
comparatively short time, and withal is so good to eat, 
that its popularity is well merited. Its adaptability to 
being grown as a farm crop, for evaporating purposes, has 
also given a stimulus to its cultivation. The future of the 
black raspberry is promising. 

Very little need be said concerning the botanical char- 
acters of the black-cap, since the species to which it be- 
longs, Rubus occidentalis, is so distinct from the other cul- 
tivated species of raspberries. The color of the fruit and 
method of propagation are alone sufficient to distinguish 
it from others. A western type, Rubus leucodermis, is 
closely related, so closely indeed that it may well be con- 
sidered as only a geographical variety or modification of 
the eastern form, though now classed as a species by 
botanists. It is found in the mountains of California and 
adjoining states. It is distinguished from Rubus occi- 
dentalis chiefly by the color of .the fruit, which is yellowish 
red or wine-colored, by the coarser toothed leaflets and 
the stouter and more hooked prickles. 

The Ohio Everbearing appears to have been the first 



Black Raspberries 149 

named variety of black-cap introduced into cultivation. 
It was found in the state of Ohio, and introduced to public 
notice by Nicholas Longworth, of Cincinnati, who began 
its culture in 1832. Next came the American Black, also 
named Joslyn's Black-cap, Joslyn's Improved, Joslyn's 
Improved Black-cap, American Improved, etc., but 
which finally came to be known the country over as Doo- 
little. This was found growing wild by Leander Joslyn, 
of Phelps, Ontario County, New York, and introduced by 
H. H. Doolittle, of Oaks Corners, about 1850. It is said 
to have owed its especial prominence and value to the 
method by which it was propagated, only the tips from 
one-year-old plants being used. This variety did much to 
spread the cultivation of black-caps throughout the coun- 
try, and the impetus then gained has steadily increased, 
until the fruit has become one of the most important. 
The development of the evaporating industry has done 
much to increase the extent of its cultivation. 

Formerly it was one of the most easily grown and most 
uniformly successful fruits in cultivation, but in some 
localities the industry has been seriously threatened by 
the spread of fungous diseases, notably the anthracnose. 
We are now learning better how to control this malady 
so that the industry is not likely to be crippled. 

Since the black-cap is the youngest member of the rasp- 
berry family, there is reason to hope for much progress 
in its development. Marked improvement is to be seen 
in the best varieties of the present day over the wild plants 
of the woods, or those first introduced. This improvement 
seems to be going on rapidly, and there is no reason why 
it should not continue. We want not only better size and 



150 Bush-Fruits 

better quality than we now have, but we want equally 
reliable varieties which will ripen both early and late. 

Varieties of Black Raspberries 

Ada. — A chance seedling which originated with Henry Young, 
of Ada, Ohio, about 1882 or 1883. Thought by him to be a cross 
between Doolittle and Mammoth Cluster. Comparatively free from 
thorns. Fruit large, jet black, and of good quality. Blooms late. 
Season with Gregg. 

Ak-Sar-Ben. — A seedling discovered by Ex-Gov. Robert W. 
Furnas, of Brownville, Nebraska. Hardy, large, of good color and 
fair quality. 

Alden. — A name proposed for the Ohio, to better distinguish it 
from the Ohio Everbearing, but never adopted. — Mich. Exp. Sta., 
Bull. Ill : 256. 

American Black (Common Black-cap, Black Raspberry, Thimble- 
berry, Rubus occidentalis) . — This is the common black raspberry of 
the eastern United States. It was described by Downing as fol- 
lows: "This raspberry, common in almost every field, with large 
rambling purple shoots, and flattened, small, black berries, is every- 
where known. It is frequently cultivated in gardens, where, if kept 
well pruned, its berry is much larger and finer. Its rich, acid flavor 
renders it perhaps the finest sort for kitchen use, tarts, puddings, etc. 
It ripens a little earlier than most of the European sorts." 

American Everbearing. — Named and brought to notice by Mr. 
Hatfield, of Indiana. Sent out by the Cleveland Nursery Company, 
of Rio Vista, Va., as an everbearing black-cap. 

American White (Yellow Cap, Golden Cap, White Thimble- 
berry). — Similar in all respects to the black-cap, but with yellow- 
ish fruit and canes. It is found wild from time to time, and has often 
appeared in cultivation, though never very popular. 

Arctic. — Described as vigorous, early, not very large, moderately 
firm, juicy, and sweet. 

August Black. — Produced by Thomas Rivers, England. Ap- 
parently never cultivated much. 

Autumn Black. — Another variety produced by Mr. Rivers. 



Varieties of Black Raspberries 151 

Babbit. — A chance seedling found near College Springs, Iowa, 
about 1883. 

Babcock Nos. 5, 5 and 9. — Sent out for trial. Geneva (N. Y.) 
Exp. Station, Bull. 91 : 201. 

Barnes.— Mentioned. 111. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1880 : 78. 

Beckner. — Originated in Tippecanoe county, Indiana, about 1855. 

Beebe (Beebe's Golden, Beebe's Golden Prolific). — Originated 
about 1886, with James Beebe, of Cassadaga, N. Y. Said to be 
productive, but not different from the common yellow-cap. 

Belle. — Sent to The Rural New-Yorker by L. C. Carlow, of 
Batavia, 111. Very early, large, but lacking in flavor. — Mich. Exp. 
Sta. Bull. Ill : 260. 

Belmont. — Originated by John Scobs, of Barnesville, Ohio, and 
introduced in 1879. 

Black Pearl. — Found among Kansas in 1905 by Herman Krumrei, 
St. Joseph, Mo. Introduced in 1907. Vigorous, stocky, upright, 
productive, hardy. Leaves small; fruit early, large, regular, not 
crumbly, juicy, somewhat seedy, but of good quality. (Plate V.) 

Bluffton. — A seedling raised at Bluffton, Mo. — Mo. Hort. Soc. 
Rept., 1886 : 48. 

Bonanza. — Originated with W. C. Freeman, North Springfield, 
Mo., about 1888.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 260. 

Bronze Queen. — Origin, Missouri. Fruit sweet, of good quality, 
with a peculiar bronze color. — Mo. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1886 : 182. 

Burns. — A seedling produced by A. M. Burns of Manhattan, Kans. 
Claimed to withstand drought and heat well. 

Carman. — Originated by A. H. Sherwood, Southport, Conn., and 
named in honor of E. S. Carman, Editor of The Rural New-Yorker. 
Introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale. An early variety. 

Carpenter Seedling. — A seedling originated by Charles Carpenter, 
of Kelley's Island, Ohio, closely resembling Beebe's Golden. 

Centennial. — Two varieties are mentioned under this name: one 
found by George Husman, near Hermann, Mo., about 1860, and one 
found by Mr. Grayhill, near Carthage. — Mo. Hort. Soc. Rept., 
1884 : 296. 

Champion. — Found in Clark county, Ohio. Sent out by Frank 
Murphy, of Donnelsville.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 263. 



152 Bush-Fruits 

Chapman. — Found on the grounds of Mr. Chapman, near Cin- 
cinnati, and carried to Ross county, Ohio, about 1864. Thought 
to be the same as Ohio. 

Chesterfield. — Found wild in Chesterfield county, Va. — The Rural 
New-Yorker, 1884 : 18. 

Coloma. — A thornless variety sent out by John Wenslick, Coloma, 
Mich. 

Conrath. — Discovered near Ann Arbor, Mich., in 1886 as a chance 
seedling near a patch of Gregg, by C. H. Woodruff, who sold the 
stock to Conrath Bros., for whom it was named. Early, vigorous, 
productive, large, moderately firm, coal black, ripening early, with 
a long season. 

Corinth. — Mentioned, Mass. Hatch Exp. Station, Bulletin 22. 

Cottier Everbearing. — Originating with M. T. Thompson, of Rio 
Vista, Va. Recommended for its autumn-fruiting qualities. 

Crawford. — Mentioned, Mass. Hatch Exp. Station. — Bull. 21 : 11. 

Cream. — A yellow-cap mentioned by William Parry in 1870. 
Mich. Exp. Bull. Ill : 265. 

Cromwell (Butler). — Originated by G. S. Butler, of Cromwell, 
Conn. Introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale. Resembles Tyler. 

Cumberland. — Originated by David Miller, Camp Hill, Penn. 
Plant stocky, vigorous and productive: fruit large, roundish-conical, 
firm and of good quality. Late and lasts through a long season. A 
good variety. 

Daily Bearing. — -Originated with Mr. Griggs, of Ohio, from seed 
of the Ohio Everbearing. Canes nearly thornless. 

Davis. — A yellow-cap, found on the banks of the New River, North 
Carolina, some years ago, by an old lady named Davis. 

Davison (Davison's Thornless). — Said to have originated in the 
garden of Mrs. Mercy Davison, of Gowanda, N. Y. Sent out by 
Joseph Clinton sometime prior to 1866. Probably the earliest 
variety grown. This, together with the sweetness of its fruit and 
its freedom from thorns, made it popular in the home-garden. 

Diamond (Black Diamond). — A late variety, vigorous and hardy; 
fruit jet black, very sweet. 

Doolittle (Joslyn, Joslyn's Improved. Joslyn's Black-cap, American 
Improved, etc.). — This was the first variety which really gave prom- 



Varieties of Black Raspberries 153 

inence to the black raspberry as a commercial fruit. It was intro- 
duced by H. H. Doolittle, of Oaks Corners, N. Y. Said to have been 
found wild by Leander Joslyn, of Phelps, Ontario county, N. Y. Mr. 
Doolittle seems to have taken great interest in selecting and improv- 
ing this fruit. The starting point may have been from this plant, 
found by Mr. Joslyn, or it may have been from wild plants in general. 
What gave the American black-cap especial value under this name 
was, perhaps, not so much the variety itself, as the improved method 
of propagation adopted by Mr. Doolittle, in which only the tips 
from one-year-old plants were used. Whether his stock was de- 
rived from one original plant, or from various selected sources, 
it is certain that the Doolittle raspberry acquired a fixity of type 
which made it long the standard cultivated black raspberry. 

Doomore. — A seedling found between two rows of Doolittle, by 
Gustus Swabley, of Tiffin, Ohio, in 1884. 

Dorchester. — Mentioned. Guelph, Ont., Exp. Sta., Bull. 27. 

Duncan (Kentucky Prolific, Kentucky Mammoth, Kentucky). — ■ 
Found on the farm of Jack Smith, in Jefferson county, Kentucky, 
by a man named Duncan. Apparently a popular variety in Ken- 
tucky. 

Earhart. — A variety of Illinois origin, introduced by Hale Brothers 
about 1886. Glossy black, rather small, ripening very early. Said 
to produce a small second crop in September. 

Early Cluster .—Mentioned. Rept. Mich. Pom. Soc. 1875: 197. 

Early Prolific. — Mentioned as "early, a strong grower, nearly 
thornless, hardy, productive, and of the best quality." — Missouri 
Hort. Soc. Rept. 1883: 79. 

Ebon Beauty. — Found by F. L. Piers in a piece of woodland in 
Indiana, in 1887. 

Ebony (Farnsworth) . — Originated as a chance seedling, about 
1885, on the farm of W. W. Farnsworth, of Waterville, Ohio. 

Edmunds. — On trial in Michigan. Fruit irregular and crumbly. 

Egyptian. — An early variety. 

Elsie. — A seedling raised by Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo. 
Large and excellent. Said to be nearly identical with Surprise. 

Emperor. — Mentioned in the Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill, p. 273. 

Eureka. — Said to have been discovered wild on the farm of Jacob 



154 Bush-Fruits 

Smith, in Miami county, Ohio, by J. C. Kester, of New Carlisle. 
Brought to notice by W. N. Scarff, of the same place. Said to be 
equal to Gregg in size. Nearly as early as Palmer. Promising for 
market. 

Everlasting. — Described in The Rural New-Yorker for 1882, p. 669, 
as an autumn-fruiting variety, from Lawrence Co., Pa. 

Every Day. — Commonly thought to be identical with the Ohio 
Everbearing, but considered by Dr. Warder to be a much more 
continuous bearer, fruiting almost continuously until frost. 

Fadely. — Received at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station from 
Joshua Fadely, of Sassafras, Va. Claimed to be everbearing. Pa. 
Exp. Sta. Bull. 32: 11. 

Fay (Fay's Thornless). — A variety similar to Davison. 

Ferndale. — A chance seedling found by W. B. K. Johnson, Allen- 
town, Pa., along the Delaware River. 

Florence. — A yellow variety, originating in New Jersey. Intro- 
duced about 1881. Thought at the time to have been one of the best 
yellow varieties. 

Gault. — Found by W. C. Gault, of Ruggles, Ashland county, 
Ohio, growing by the roadside near his place, in 1887, and intro- 
duced by him in 1893. Described as medium to large, dull black, 
with a slight bloom, moderately juicy, and a good shipper. Season 
very late. Tends to produce a second crop in autumn. 

General Negley. — Mentioned before .the Ontario Fruit Growers' 
Society, as a perpetual bearing black-cap. 1 Under this name Crozier 
quotes 2 from Dr. J. A. Warder as follows: "A seedling, probably 
from one of the large foreign varieties, Pilot, Hornet or Franconia, 
originated by General Negley, of Pittsburg. It is vigorous, of foreign 
aspect and foliage. Stood the past winter well; is productive, rather 
early. Fruit large, roundish oblong, juicy, high flavor, and very good." 

Gibraltar. — Originated in Ontario; introduced by King Brothers, 
Dansville, N. Y. Thought to be a cross between Gregg and Hilborn. 
Claimed to be unusually hardy, vigorous and healthy. Fruit re- 
sembles Gregg. 

*Gar. Month, 12:278. 

2 Mich. Exp. Sta., Bull. Ill: 277. 



Varieties of Black Raspberries 155 

Golden-cap. — A seedling of the American White-cap, originating 
in Cedar county, Iowa. 

Golden Thornless. — Introduced from Minnesota, by Purdy & 
Johnston, of Palmyra, N. Y., previous to 1869. 

Gray. — Mentioned, Rept. Worcester Hort. Soc, 1881: 24. 

Green. — Discovered on the grounds of Green's Nursery Company, 
of Rochester; N. Y., about 1890. 

Gregg (Great Western, Hoosier Mammoth, Western Triumph). — ■ 
Found growing wild in a ravine on the Gregg farm, in Ohio county, 
Indiana, in 1866. Largely introduced by N. Ohmer, of Dayton, 
Ohio, who first saw the fruit on exhibition in 1875. Canes large, 
upright, very vigorous, possessing an abundance of bloom and a 
peculiar clean, smooth appearance. More difficult to propagate 
than many other sorts, owing to its upright, vigorous habit. Fruit 
large, roundish oblate, with a very decided gray bloom. Flesh very 
firm, only moderately juicy and sweet. Season late. One of the 
best known and most popular late varieties. It is uniformly healthy 
and productive, though slightly lacking in hardiness, especially on 
heavy soils. The plant is slower to develop than most other varieties, 
but is also slower to decline, remaining longer in profitable condition. 
Though not of the highest quality, it is a good berry, and its excellent 
shipping qualities render it especially adapted to market. It is also 
an excellent variety for evaporating, especially where fruit is picked 
by hand. It clings so tightly that it is not easily gathered with the 
berry harvester. 

Hale Early. — Sent out for trial by G. H. & J. H. Hale, of South 
Glastonbury, Conn., but never introduced. 

Hamilton. — Mentioned by Downing as from Shelby Co., Tenn. 

Hannibal (Extra Late). — Described as a large, fine berry of ex- 
cellent quality. Apparently vigorous and productive, being several 
days later than Gregg. Originated with W. J. Bradt, of North 
Hannibal, N. Y. Rept. U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1892. 

Harrison. — Named in honor of President Harrison by Henry S. 
Harris, of White Lane, Salem county, N. J., who found it in a neigh- 
bor's garden many years ago. 

Haskell Yellow. — Taken from Massachusetts to Illinois by Dr. 
Haskell, about 1836— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 281. 



156 Bush-Fruits 

Hawkeye. — A berry found in Iowa, which is thought to have come 
originally from Indiana. Said to be better than Doolittle, as firm 
as Gregg, and as large, but earlier. — Iowa Hort. Soc. Rept. 1884: 535. 

Hayne. — Brought to notice by H. Hayne of Delphi, Indiana. 

Hilborn. — A seedling found in an old raspberry plantation, and 
introduced by W. W. Hilborn, of Leamington, Ont., in 1886. De- 
scribed as sturdy, very hardy, and productive. Fruit nearly as large 
as Gregg, clear, glossy black, rich and juicy. A favorite variety in 
many parts of Ohio and Ontario. 

Hixon (Hixon's Everbearer). — Appears to have attained some 
prominence in Kansas. Rept. Kan. Hort. Soc, 1886, p. 290. 

Hoag (Harkness). — Originated with Charles R. Hoag, at Kasson, 
Dodge county, Minnesota. Later it was disseminated by J. W. 
Harkness. Said to resemble Gregg, but to have been more hardy 
in Minnesota. 

Hoosier. — A midseason variety, hardy and prolific. 

Hopkins. — Found wild in the woods, within the present limits of 
Kansas City, Mo., in the year 1872. Later brought to notice by 
G. W. Hopkins, of Springfield, Mo., and introduced by Frank 
Holsinger, of Rosedale, Kans. Similar to Tyler. Considered val- 
uable in the region where it originated. 

Idaho. — Mentioned by Crozier, 1 as possibly a variety of Rubus 
leucodermis. Said to have come from the mountains near Lewiston, 
Idaho. It was sent out for trial by F. R. Palmer, of Mansfield, Ohio, 
but did not prove valuable. 

Ideal. — A seedling found near a Gregg plantation, in 1890, by 
C. P. Augur, of Connecticut, who described it as nearly as good as 
the Souhegan, and larger and better in every way than the Gregg. — ■ 
The Rural New-Yorker, 1893: 430. 

Indiana. — A black-cap from Indiana, introduced in 1884. 

Ironclad (Smith's Ironclad). — A variety of this name seems to 
have originated at Forest, Ohio, about 1885. Under the name 
"Smith's Ironclad," Crozier records a variety, 2 brought to notice in 
Kansas by a man named Smith, some years ago, he having found a 

i Mich. Exp. Sta., Bull. Ill: 284. 
2 Mich. Exp. Sta., Bull. Ill: 309. 



Varieties of Black Raspberries 157 

single raspberry plant among a bill of trees ordered from an agent. 
Probably an old variety, but known in Kansas under the names 
mentioned. 

Kagy Everbearing. — Mentioned. Ohio Expt. Sta. Rept., 1886, 
p. 190. 

Kansas. — Originated as a chance seedling on the farm of A. H. 
Griesa, Lawrence, Kans., in 1884. Although he had growing, at 
the same time, several hundred other seedlings from selected stock, 
this proved more valuable than any of the others. Vigorous, hardy, 
exceedingly thorny, rooting very readily at the tips. Fruit large, 
ripening a week earlier than Gregg, with less bloom, juicy, fairly 
firm, and of excellent flavor. A prominent commercial variety. 

Kellogg. — A chance seedling found by George J. Kellogg, of Wis- 
consin, about 1875. Similar to Doolittle. 

Kerr White. — Large, of moderate vigor and productiveness, with 
light yellow, pubescent fruit. 

Key Prolific (Johnston's Sweet). — A black-cap found in the Ozark 
Mountains, Ark. Grown in Iowa since about 1881. Fruit small, 
very sweet, and excellent for drying. Reintroduced by Robert 
Johnston, of Shortsville, N. Y., in 1886, as Johnston's Sweet. — la./ 
Hort. Soc. 1887: 98. 

Kimball. — Found growing wild on the farm of James Kimball, 
near Providence, Rhode Island, in 1885. Never introduced. — Mich. 
Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 287. 

King of Cliffs. — Introduced by Bradley Brothers of Illinois as an 
everbearing black-cap. Found in 1905 around a cliff of rocks near 
a field of Cumberland and Conrath and thought to be a cross between 
them. Said to begin ripening with Gandy strawberries and to con- 
tinue to bear fruit until November. Plant hardy, resembling 
Cumberland; fruit firm, jet black, of good flavor. 

Lawrence. — Originated by A. H. Griesa, Lawrence, Kans. Plants 
vigorous, usually hardy, productive. Fruit large, fairly firm, at- 
tractive black, fair to good. Has many points to commend it for 
trial as a commercial berry; lacks slightly in quality. 

Lindsey. — A variety said to have originated in Michigan. — la. 
Hort. Soc. Rept., 1882: 478. 

Little (Little's Black-Cap). Originated with John Little, of On- 



158 Bush-Fruits 

tario. Sent to T. T. Lyon, of Michigan, in 1881. Much like Davi- 
son's Thornless.— Mich. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1882: 169. 

Livingston. — Vigorous, productive, of medium size and fair 
quality. 

Lotta (Brackett's No. 101). Originated on the farm of G. C. 
Brackett, of Lawrence, Kans. A hardy and productive variety. 
Fruit large, round, black, with slight bloom; quality good; as large 
as Gregg and somewhat earlier. A valuable variety, but susceptible 
to rust and anthracnose. 

Lovett. — Found among a lot of wild seedlings on the grounds of 
Ezra Wood, of Ohio. Introduced by J. T. Lovett Co., of New Jersey. 
Said to be vigorous, productive, and to ripen early. Fruit firm, 
black, resembling Tyler; apparently thornless. 

Lum Everbearing (Autumn Black Raspberry, Lum's Fall Bear- 
ing). — Raised by H. B. Lum, of Sandusky, Ohio. Much like the 
Ohio Everbearing, of which it is a seedling. 

Lum Yellow Canada. — An everbearing variety. Mich. Exp. Sta. 
Bull. 111:289. 

Macomber. — This name, with numbers or letters appended, has 
been applied to various seedlings sent out on trial by J. T. Macomber 
and L. M. Macomber, of Vermont, though apparently not retained 
as a permanent name of any variety. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 
289. 

Manwaring No. 1. — Sent out by C. H. Manwaring, of Kansas. 

May King. — Similar to Souhegan. 

McCracken. — Originated by William McCracken, of Sunnydale, 
Kans., and distributed under the name Kansas, though not the 
same as the better-known variety of that name. 

McCormick (Mammoth Cluster, Miami Black-cap, Collinsville 
Miami, etc.). — For many years the leading black-cap in cultivation. 
It appears to have originated in Indiana, from the Old or Small 
Miami. A thoroughly hardy and very productive variety; a vig- 
orous grower, bearing fruit of medium size, but of a slightly reddish 
black color. Quality good; season medium. 

Miami (Miami Black, Old Miami, Small Miami). — A common 
black-cap, originally found growing along the Miami River, in Ohio. 
A vigorous, productive variety, of less value than the McCormick, 



Varieties of Black Raspberries 159 

more brownish red, not quite as sweet nor quite as late in ripening. — 
Downing. 

Midwest. — Originated by G. W. Alexander, Peru, Nebr. A cross 
between Cumberland and Cardinal. Introduced by J. R. Duncan 
& Co., Peru, Nebr. Bushes vigorous, productive, usually hardy. 
Fruit matures about with Cumberland; berries large, attractive 
black, roundish-conic, very firm, sweet, good. 

Miller Daily (Miller's Daily Bearing). — Apparently a local variety 
near Dunreith, Ind. A large, everbearing black-cap. 

Mills (Mills No. 15). — Introduced by Charles Mills, of Fairmount, 
N. Y. Raised from seed of the Gregg said to have been fertilized 
by Tyler. A strong, healthy, upright grower, moderately productive. 
Fruit of medium size and excellent flavor. 

Mills No. 1. — Of the same parentage as the preceding. Described 
as vigorous, fairly hardy. Fruit large, firm, seedy, moderately juicy, 
good quality. 

Minnesota (Minnesotian) . — A western yellow-cap, mentioned in 
various places. 

Mohler. — Originated by D. H. Mohler, New Paris, Ohio, from 
seed of the Eureka. Canes large, vigorous, very productive. Fruit 
very large, firm, good, black, early. The name "Mohler" seems to 
have been applied to the Eureka at one time, before the introduction 
of this variety. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 63. 

Moody. — A white variety mentioned by Samuel Miller, in the 
Missouri Horticultural Society Report for 1884, p. 295. 

Moore Seedling. — Mentioned. Ohio Hort. Soc. Rept. 1870, p. 62. 

Munger. — Originated with Timothy Munger in western Ohio, 
about 1890. Introduced by W. N. Scarff. Described as a good 
shipper, black, of good flavor, large size and very productive. 

Munson's Everbearing. — Reported the most reliable variety in 
Nebraska, but poor and small. 

Mxjstery. — Sent out from Kentucky as an everbearing sort. Re- 
ported as of little value, bearing no autumn crop in Minnesota. — 
BuU. 25. 

Nemaha. — Found growing wild by Ex-Gov. Furnas, of Brown- 
ville, Nebr., along the bluffs of the Missouri River in Nemaha county, 
of that state. Introduced by Green's Nursery Company, about 



160 Bush-Fruits 

1883. Very similar to the Gregg, but hardier. Vigorous and pro- 
ductive. Fruit large, of good quality, and firm. Popular in south- 
eastern Nebraska. 

New Haven. — A chance seedling which came up on the grounds 
of E. E. Clark, of New Haven, Conn., proving better than any 
seedlings he had raised. Rept. Conn. Board of Agr. 1866: 184. 

Norfolk. — Mentioned as unsatisfactory. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 
122. 

Northfield. — Sent out for trial by M. T. Thompson, of Rio Vista, 
Va., but never introduced. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 294. 

Ohio (Alden). — The great evaporating raspberry, having been 
more largely planted for that purpose than all others together. The 
full history of this variety is recorded by Bailey in Bulletin 117, 
Cornell University Exp. Station, p. 362. Somewhere in the sixties, 
Hiram Van Dusen, of Palmyra, N. Y., bought a lot of Doolittle 
plants of A. M. Purdy, of that place. When the plantation began to 
fail, he found one plant apparently as good as new, which, from 
previous observation, he knew to be firmer, more productive, and 
to ripen later. The Doolittle plants mentioned, it was found, came 
from Ohio, and Mr. Van Dusen called this the "Ohio" to distinguish 
it from the Doolittle. It was introduced by a son and grandson of 
Mr. Van Dusen. A. M. Purdy was of the opinion that this was 
precisely identical with what he grew at that time as the Miami, 
obtained from Ohio, and states that it was so decided by John J. 
Thomas and Patrick Barry, who saw them growing on his grounds. 
This, like many market fruits, though hardy and productive, is not 
of good quality. It is one of the most seedy varieties grown, and 
it is partially for this reason, no doubt, that it yields more pounds 
of evaporated fruit per bushel than other sorts. 

Ohio Everbearing (Monthly Black-cap). — A full account of the 
history of this variety is also given by Bailey in Bulletin 117 of the 
Cornell University Experiment Station. (See also page 148.) The 
taking up of this variety by Nicholas Longworth appears to have 
been the beginning of the cultivation of the black raspberry in 
America. It is of especial interest on this account, although not 
a variety of great value. Its chief feature seems to have been its 
autumn bearing habit. 



Varieties of Black Raspberries 161 

Older. — Found in the garden of Mr. Older, of Independence, la., 
in 1872. It was named in honor of Mr. Older, after his death, by- 
Mr. Burser, of Warren, 111., and introduced by L. K. Ballard, of the 
same place. Hardy, strong, vigorous, enduring drought well. Fruit 
large, nearly destitute of bloom, black and firm, of good quality. 
Popular in the West. 

Onondaga (Mills No. 7). — A seedling raised in 1884 by Charles 
Mills, of Fairmount, N. Y., from seed of the Gregg growing near 
Tyler. Vigorous, productive, very large, firm, jet black, ripening 
with Gregg or a little earlier. 

Ontario. — Found on the grounds of E. E. Lord, of Fairport, N. Y., 
in 1886, and introduced by him in 1872. Fruit large, firm, sweet and 
rich, earlier than Doolittle. 

Oregon. — Said to be a native variety of especial value in the state 
for which it is named. Not as dry as other black-caps, and larger 
than Gregg. Referred to Rubus leucodermis. — Mich. Exp. Sta. 
Bull. 111:297. 

Ozark. — A seedling brought to notice by Mr. Holman, of Missouri. 
Somewhat like Gregg,— Mo. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1886: 182. 

Palmer (Palmer's No. 1, Acme). — -Originated by F. R. Palmer, 
of Mansfield, Ohio. Introduced in the fall of 1888. Similar to 
Tyler, and ripening with it. Hardy, early, large, of good quality 
and productive. It has been largely grown, especially in the 
West. 

Pioneer (Progress). — Originated on the farm of Jacob Muhl, of 
Hammonton, N. J. Apparently grown by him for some time be- 
fore being introduced by the J. T. Lovett Co., who offered it under 
the name "Progress." Much like Souhegan, but claimed to be 
later, more vigorous and productive. 

Plum Farmer. — Found by L. J. Farmer, Pulaski, N. Y., in a ship- 
ment of another variety from Ohio. Introduced in 1895. Vigorous, 
upright, dense, hardy, very productive and healthy. Fruit early, 
ripening a week or more before Gregg, easily picked, a good shipper 
and one of the best to withstand drought. Berries large, very black 
but not glossy, firm, uniform, juicy and of good quality. One of the 
most satisfactory present-day varieties. (Plate II.) 

Poscharsky. — Different numbers under this name have been sent 



162 Bush-Fruits 

out by Poscharsky & Son of Princeton, 111. No. 7, strong, productive, 
with fruit resembling Gregg, but of better quality, is promising. 

Pride of Ohio. — -Hardy, vigorous, solid black, firm. 

Pride of the Market. — The name appeared in L. L. May & Co's 
catalogue. 

Pride of the West. — Said to be fairly productive and vigorous, 
large, grayish black, of fair quality, ripening with Gregg. 

Queen of the West. — A Kansas seedling, ripening a few days earlier 
than Souhegan, but larger and more productive. — Mich. Exp. Sta. 
Bull. Ill: 302. 

Rachel.— A chance seedling found in 1891 by Rachel D. Mitchell, 
Geneva, N. Y. ; not introduced. Plants usually hardy, very vigorous, 
productive, almost immune to anthracnose. Foliage very healthy, 
dark green. Fruit matures very late; berries large, attractive, black 
when fully ripe, very firm, with abundant bloom, mild, sweet, good 
in quality. 

Ransom Everbearing. — Sent out by Stark Bros., of Louisiana, Mo., 
in 1890.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 303. 

Rex.— A seedling of the Gregg raised by John W. Perry of Coving- 
ton, Ohio, in 1884 or 1885.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 305. 

Reyes. — "The sweetest black-cap I have ever tasted." — P. C. 
Reynolds, Mich. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1886: 63. 

Rocky Mountain Cluster. — Mentioned. Mo. Hort. Soc. Rept. 
1897, p. 27. 

Rundell. — A yellow-cap closely resembling Beebe's Golden. 
Found by Charles Rundell, of New Buffalo, Mich.— Mich. Exp. 
Sta. Bull. 11:306. 

Saunders No. 60. — A seedling of Gregg, produced by Professor 
William Saunders, of London, Ont. Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill: 307. 

Savanna. — A variety obtained from the woods in Oklahoma, 
near Savanna, and so named by T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas. 
Earlier than Tyler, prolific, very sweet, enduring extremes of climate 
well.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 307. 

Scarff. — Introduced by W. N. Scarff, New Carlisle, Ohio. Sup- 
posed to be a seedling of Gregg. Hardy, very productive, vigorous, 
healthy, upright. Fruit about the size of Cumberland. 

Seneca. — Raised by Mr. Dell, of Seneca county, N. Y., and 



Varieties of Black Raspberries 163 

brought to notice by Doolittle & Wright, of Waterloo, N. Y., in 
1867. A large late variety, very vigorous and productive. Fruit 
large, somewhat reddish, with a light bloom. 

Sinton Thornless. — Recorded by Fuller, in 1867, as similar to 
Doolittle, but a week earlier.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 309. 

Smith Giant. — Apparently a seedling of the Gregg, produced by 
A. M. Smith, of St. Catharines, Ont., who reported it hardier than 
that variety. 

Smith No. 1. — A chance seedling sent to the Geneva, N. Y., 
Experiment Station which gave a high percentage of promising 
seedlings in breeding work. 

Smith No. 2. — Sent to the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station, 
by B. F. Smith, of Lawrence, Kans., who found it growing under 
an apple tree. 

Smith Prolific. — A chance seedling found in a strawberry patch 
on the grounds of N. G. Smith, of Manchester, N. Y. 

Souhegan (Skowhegan). — Originated in the valley of the Souhe- 
gan River, New Hampshire, about 1870, from seed of the Doolittle, 
by J. A. Carlton. Introduced by G. H. & J. H. Hale in 1881. One 
of the standard early varieties, widely known and generally prized. 
Canes hardy, vigorous, and productive. Berries medium to large, 
jet black, without bloom, of good quality. . 

Spanish Black. — Grown and sold by Henry Geisler, of Watervliet, 
Mich. It is reported to be the Gregg re-named. — Mich. Exp. Sta. 
Bull. Ill : 311. 

Spray Early. — A chance seedling brought into cultivation at Fort 
Atkinson, Wis., about 1884. 

Springfield. — A chance seedling, found about 1880 on the grounds 
of J. W. Adams, of Springfield, Mass. Described as thornless, very 
early, prolific, of good quality and perfectly hardy. Somewhat 
resembles Davison. 

Stahelin. — From F. J. Stahelin, Bridgeman, Mich. Unpromising 
at the Mich. Exp. Station. 

Stone Fort. — Received at the New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Geneva, N. Y., in 1909, from J. T. Lovett, Little Silver, 
New Jersey. Bushes vigorous when not attacked by anthracnose 
to which it is susceptible, usually productive, not always hardy; 



164 Bush-Fruits 

fruit matures in mid-season; berries variable in size, firm, heavily 
pubescent, good black, not as sweet or as high in quality as Kansas 
or Plum Farmer. 

Success (Waters' Success). — Sent out for trial in 1893, by James N. 
Waters, Fernhill, Ont. Very promising on the grounds of The Rural 
New-Yorker.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 318. 

Summit. — A yellow variety from Summit township, Crawford 
county, Pa. It was thought to have originated from seed found in 
soil excavated at a depth of ten feet. The original plant was found 
and transplanted by Daniel Supher, but was brought to notice by 
A. T. Hobbs, of Randolph, Pa. 

Surprise. — -Found wild, and introduced to notice by Charles Hus- 
mann, of Bluffton, Mo., about 1865. Large, more conical and 
darker than the common black-cap. — Downing. 

Surrey. — Introduced by the Cleveland Nursery Co. of Rio Vista, 
Va.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 313. 

Sweet Home. — A seedling of Lum's Everbearing, from Illinois. 
Introduced about 1880. Similar to McCormick. 

Thomas (Thomas' Seedling). — Originated by Mr. Thomas, of 
Marion, Ind. 

Thompson Sweet. — Mentioned in Bulletins of the Mass. Hatch 
Experiment Station. 

Townsend No. 2. — -Mentioned as on test at the Geneva (N. Y.) 
Experiment Station. 

Tyler. — -An accidental seedling, found growing among McCormick 
and Seneca plants on the grounds of Nathan Tyler, of Auburn, N. Y. 
Five hundred plants were sold to Robert Johnston, of Shortsville, 
N. Y., who introduced it under the name Tyler. An excellent early 
variety, of good size and quality, jet black, hardy and productive. 
It resembles Souhegan very closely, although of entirely different 
origin. It has been thought to withstand spring frosts better than 
Souhegan. After the Doolittle passed the zenith of its popularity, 
these two varieties long stood as the representative berries. 

Virginia. — A variety introduced by the Cleveland Nursery Co., of 
Rio Vista, Va. Said to be large, jet black, round, conical, moderately 
firm, of excellent quality, holding out well at the end of the season. — 
Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 317. 



The Red and Hybrid Raspberries 165 

Wade. — Found by John Wade, of Veedersburg, Ind., in the 
Spring of 1884, under a grape trellis where birds had dropped the 
seed. Described by him as an ironclad variety, wonderfully pro- 
ductive. Fruit showy black, firm, of superior quality, ripening about 
with Souhegan. 

Westchester. — A chance seedling, found in 1861 in the garden of 
Levi J. Mabie, of Tarrytown, Westchester county, N. Y. — Mich. 
Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 318. 

Winfield. — A midseason variety. 

Winona. — An Ohio variety, introduced in 1890. 

Wonder. — An everbearing variety, originating with J. H. Bobbins, 
of Arcadia, Ind.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 319. 

Woodside. — Originated in New York, from seed sown in a garden. 
Froduces a second crop in autumn. — Fuller. 

Wragg. — An Ohio variety on trial in Michigan. 

Yellow Pearl. — A yellow-cap variety often producing a fall crop. — ■ 
Downing. 

Yosemite. — A rampant grower, and very thorny; berries large and 
of poor quality. — Cal. Hort. Bept. 1885: 233. Ferhaps of Rubus 
leucodermis parentage. 

Recommended varieties of black-caps. — Kansas and Plum 
Farmer (Plate II) are perhaps the two most popular black- 
caps at the present day, having largely replaced such 
varieties as Tyler and Palmer. Gregg is still the standard 
late berry, though the Nemaha is preferred in places, 
while Ohio is the great berry for evaporating purposes. 
Other varieties well and favorably known are Cumberland, 
Lotta and Older. 



THE BED AND HYBRID RASPBERRIES 

Two species are included in the true red raspberries of 
cultivation, — the European red raspberry, Rubus Idceus, 
Fig. 20, and the American red, Rubus strigosus, Fig. 21. 



166 



Bush-Fruits 




Fig. 20. Rubus Idxus (X%)- 

Though similar in general appearance and in their botan- 
ical characters, there are essential points of difference. 
Botanically, it may be said, that the European plant is 
rather stouter and less free in its habit of growth, the 
leaves are a little whiter beneath, thicker, and generally 



The Red and Hybrid Raspberries 



167 



somewhat wrinkled, and the canes are light colored, bear- 
ing purple prickles in some varieties. The prickles on the 
finer parts are firmer, recurved and less numerous. 
The horticultural differences are more marked than 




Fig. 21. Rubus strigosus (X 1 /?)- 

the botanical differences, the chief one being the habit of 
the European raspberry to continue bearing more or less 
throughout the greater part of the season after ripening 
begins. This feature, while it may be desirable in a home 
berry, is objectionable in a market berry. Another im- 



168 Bush-Fruits 

portant point of difference between the two species is in 
hardiness. Few., if any of the European varieties can be 
depended upon to endure our winters without protection, 
except in the most favorable localities, and even then 
they are unreliable. It is also probable that our hot, dry 
summers are an unfavorable factor as well as the cold of 
winter. No better evidence of their lack of adaptability 
to our climate is needed than the fact that while there 
have been something like one hundred varieties belonging 
to this species introduced in the United States, probably 
not over five or six are grown at all at the present time, 
and these only in a very small way. The fruit is generally 
conceded to be of better quality than our American reds, 
and if the plants had proved satisfactory, this species 
would naturally have been in the ascendency. 

The native red raspberry of the United States has been 
much longer in cultivation than the black raspberry or the 
blackberry, but is much younger than the European berry. 
In spite of its youthfulness, it has long since outrun its 
European cousin and gained control of the commercial 
red raspberry-growing of the country. While it may be 
slightly behind the European berry in quality of fruit, it 
is so thoroughly at home, and adapts itself so readily to 
cultivation, that it has become a far more desirable market 
berry. One great objection to the red raspberry as a 
market fruit is its long bearing season, necessitating so 
many pickings to secure the crop. The American sorts 
have the advantage in this regard, although even they 
ripen too unevenly. 

The number of varieties of the hybrid, Rubus neglectus, 
type, or Purple-cane family, as it was formerly called, is 



The Red and Hybrid Raspberries 169 

a point of interest in the history of the raspberry. Some 
forty varieties can be definitely placed in this class. 
Among those too little known to permit of classification 
some doubtless also belong here. The group includes all 
variations between the red and the black raspberry. 
Nearly all propagate by tips, like the black-caps, but a 
few propagate by suckers, though sparingly. This is 
true of the Philadelphia and 'its numerous seedlings, which 
are much more like Rubus strigosus than Rubus occiden- 
talis, being practically red raspberries of a slightly darker 
hue. 

Whether plants of this intermediate character should 
be considered hybrids or recognized as a distinct species 
was long an unsolved problem. So much experimental 
work in breeding raspberries has now been carried on, and 
so many artificial hybrids produced, and their behavior 
and characters are so well known that there seems no 
longer any reason to question the belief that all these 
forms are primarily of hybrid origin. 

Hybrids often lack vigor and are unproductive. This is 
true of some Rubus hybrids, but the red and black 
raspberry are so nearly akin that hybrids between them 
do not necessarily follow this rule. Shaffer and Co- 
lumbian are among the most productive varieties in 
cultivation. 

The history of the red raspberry as found in the old 
herbals and other ancient writings, as well as its develop- 
ment in our own country, is interesting. The following 
account, with quotations from some of the older writers, 
was at one time contributed to "The American Garden" 
by the writer. 



170 Bush-Fruits 

History and Future of the Red Raspberries 

The history of the European raspberry, Rubus Idoeus, runs far 
back into the ages. It is mentioned by Cato, who lived before the 
beginning of the Christian era, and it appears to have been a natural 
product of Roman territory. Pliny the Elder, supposed to have 
written about A. D. 45, mentions it as one of the wild brambles 
which the Greeks called "Idea," having derived its name from 
Mount Ida, in Asia Minor, at the foot of which lay the renowned 
city of Troy. In this mountain were said to dwell fabulous be- 
ings, who were credited with being the first to work iron and copper, 
and with having introduced music and rhythm into Greece. Per- 
haps we may infer that in the exercise of the marvelous powers 
which they were alleged to possess, they produced this glorious 
fruit to appease some angry god, or gladden the eye and delight 
the taste of a gracious princess. Although deriving its name from 
this locality, where it was particularly abundant, the raspberry is 
indigenous over the greater part of Europe and northern Asia. It 
is impossible to tell whether the plants were cultivated at this early 
date, and it is not unlikely that the gods, like many mortals of the 
present day, were obliged to be content with the precarious supply 
to be found growing at will in grove and glade. PaUadeus, how- 
ever, a Roman writer of the fourth century, mentions the rasp- 
berry as one of the cultivated fruits of that time. From a work 
written by Conrad Heresbach, entitled "Rei Rusticse," published 
in 1570, and afterward translated by Barnaby Googe, it appears 
that raspberries were little attended to during that period. John 
Parkinson, in his "Paradisus," published in 1629, speaks of red, 
white and thornless raspberries as suitable for the English climate. 
Stephen Switzer, in 1724, only mentions three kinds. George W. 
Johnson, in his "History of English Gardening," published in 
1829, gives the number of cultivated varieties as twenty-three. 
From these detached notes it appears that although cultivated at 
least as far back as the fourth century, it nevertheless did not 
come to be considered a fruit of any importance and demand at- 
tention until the close of the sixteenth century, or later. 

The raspberry never seems to have been held in such high esteem 




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ititbc-8toun&>anbputtetfy foo.it!) cuerp 
perencvu fijiitejs o:fpitngeg,$e\»btclj 
tije ncpt pecre boo bjmg fobjtfc fytit 
6ofc}ce£anbfriute, 

7 /tf Places. 

%\)t jframbopete fotmbe in fome 
placed of feouctyiatib in barfcetnoobg: 
ant) tn tbi£ Cotuitrfeftepplanteftftt 
garben£ , anb it lottetlj (babotupe 
placet , vu^iere astije £>onne fljmebt 
not ofteir* 

Cfye jframbope fitottnetl) in <H£ap 
anb lune,t^eftuitei^ttpetn3Iaip # 

Fig. 22. Description of the raspberry by Dodoens, 1578. 



172 Bush-Fruits 

for its medicinal properties as the blackberry. Gerard Dewes, in 
his translation of "Dodoen's Niewe Herball," or "Historie of 
Plantes," published in 1587, enumerates the following "vertues:" 

"The leaves, tender springes, fruit and roote of this Bramble 
are not much unlyke, in vertue and working, to the leaves, shutes, 
fruite and rootes of the other Bramble, as Dioscorides writeth. 

"The flowers of Raspis are good to be bruysed with hony, and 
layde to the inflammations and hoate humours gathered togither in 
the eyes, and Erysipelas or wilde fire, for it quencheth such hoate 
burninges. 

"They be also good to be dronken with water of them that have 
weake stomackes." 

The illustration (Fig. 22) shows a specimen of the text of this 
work, giving the description, habitat and time of flowering of the 
Framboye, Raspis or Hyndberie, as the raspberry was then called 
in French, English and German, respectively. The figure of the 
plant (Fig. 23) is reproduced from John Gerarde's "Historie of 
Plantes," published in 1597. 

After the settlement of this country the first attempts at culti- 
vation, as with other fruits, were with varieties which had been 
familiar in England. In the second edition of William R. Prince's 
"Pomological Manual," published in 1832, fourteen varieties are 
described and six others mentioned as meriting culture. All but 
four of these are probably varieties of R. Idosus, although in some 
cases it is impossible to decide with certainty. Of these four, at 
least three appear to be forms of R. strigosus from different lo- 
calities, while the fourth may belong to the Rubus neglectus, or 
Purple-cane type. One of the varieties which appears to be European 
may also belong here. The American Pomological Society, at its 
second session in 1853, recommended four varieties for general culti- 
vation, and commended one more as promising, all of which were 
foreign sorts. In the catalogue, as recommended by the last session 
in 1891, there appear fourteen varieties of Rubus Idosus, one of which 
is placed there doubtfully, and six of which are seedlings of American 
origin. There are also twenty-nine native varieties, six of which are 
classed under R. neglectus, fourteen under R. occidentalis, and nine 
under R. strigosus. This, however, is far from representing the true 




Fig. 23. Gerarde's picture of the raspberry, 1597. 



174 Bush-Fruits 

state of comparative cultivation of the foreign and native species 
and varieties at the present time, for of the fourteen foreign varieties 
and their seedlings still retained, not over five or six are now culti- 
vated to any extent, and these only in very limited areas. 

While the Rubus Idceus type is everywhere acknowledged to be 
superior in the quality of its fruit, it is not able to maintain itself 
against summer suns and winter winds, and has had to give place 
to hardier sorts, better able to fight their own battles and emerge 
from them bearing abundant trophies of fruit, not so exquisite, per- 
haps, yet more substantial and sure. Moreover, with the gradual 
improvement which has gone on, there is at present little need for 
foreign varieties. The best of our natives yield fruit which is doubt- 
less far superior to that which gratified the gods on Mount Ida in 
those days of war and wonder. Among the first varieties of R. 
strigosus to become prominent were the Stoever and Brandywine. 
The former is a form of the American red, found wild near Lake 
Dunmore, in Vermont, by Jefferson F. Stoever, and removed to his 
garden at Tacony, near Philadelphia, where it first fruited in 1859. 
The Brandywine, or Susqueco, as it was at one time called (Susqueco 
being the Indian name for Brandywine), is of unknown origin. It 
first attracted attention in the Wilmington market, and was for a 
time called Wilmington. 

We are accustomed to boast of the marvelous progress in all lines 
of American development. What advance can we show in the im- 
provement of the raspberry? Some, to be sure, but most of it has 
been mere accident. In looking up the history of varieties it is the 
same story over and over again — "a chance seedling found growing 
wild," etc. Nearly all of our prominent varieties have originated 
in this way. A few men have gone to work systematically to breed 
and develop varieties. The first and most prominent of these was 
Dr. William D. Brinckle, of Philadelphia — a busy physician, who, 
having a taste for pomology, pursued it as a means of recreation 
from other duties. He experimented with strawberries and pears, 
as well as with raspberries. So important was his work in these lines 
that he seems to be much better remembered for that than for his 
medical reputation, although he was successful and prominent in 
this field also. He was president of the American Pomological So- 



History and Future of the Red Raspberries 175 

ciety at its second session, and for many years vice-president of the 
Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, repeatedly refusing its presi- 
dency. Unfortunately his work on raspberries was with the Rubus 
Idceus species, and most of the varieties which he produced have 
suffered the fate of the class to which they belonged; yet he obtained 
in Brinckle's Orange the variety which has stood as the desideratum 
to be sought in quality to the present day. Another who achieved 
good results in this line was David W. Herstine, of Branchtown, near 
Philadelphia, the originator of the Herstine, Saunders, Ruby and 
Elizabeth raspberries; yet these were simply seedlings of the Allen, 
grown in alternate rows with the Philadelphia. William Saunders, 
of Ontario, has also produced a number of varieties, some of which 
are said to be hybrids. 

Good as the varieties are which we have, we want further im- 
provements. Nothing is good enough to satisfy human demands. 
We want back all we have lost in giving up the raspberry of our 
forefathers beyond the sea; but coupled with that, we want all we 
have gained from the hardier species of our own country. We want 
a red raspberry as good as Brinckle's Orange in quality, as large and 
productive as Cuthbert and of brighter color, as hardy as the Turner, 
and we want it on a black-cap bush without the thorns. Will we 
get it? The Shaffer is our nearest approach at present. What the 
possibilities of careful, systematic and progressive breeding are, 
only the future can show. 

No marked change in the status of the red and hybrid 
raspberry in America is apparent since the above words 
were written, some twenty-five years ago. Cuthbert is 
still the leading red variety, with Marlboro prominent in 
some localities. In the hybrid class Columbian is sup- 
planting Shaffer. New varieties have appeared, to be 
sure, and some of them may become prominent, especially 
in certain regions. Much systematic work in crossing 
and hybridizing has been done and many seedlings have 
been grown. Among those prominent in this work have 



176 Bush-Fruits 

been members of the horticultural staff at the Geneva, 
New York, Experiment Station, Saunders and others in 
Ontario, Hansen in South Dakota and the writer in Rhode 
Island. From all this work a few, but very few, varieties 
have been introduced. Many had good qualities, but few 
were of sufficient merit to replace those already in cultiva- 
tion. Pomological progress among the brambles has not 
been rapid. 

In the following list of varieties those known to belong 
to the hybrid or Purple-cane class are followed by the 
letter (H) to indicate their origin. Similarly, those known 
to be of foreign parentage or Rubus Idmus, are designated 
by the letter (F). Many of those about which little is 
known also doubtless belong here. 

Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 

Addison (H). — Originated on the grounds of L. M. Macomber, 
of North Ferrisburgh, Vt. Canes rooting at the tips, though 
rather like the reds in color. Fruit with the flavor of the red 
raspberry. 

Allen. — See False Red Antwerp. 

Allen Red Prolific. — Same origin as the Allen. Perhaps also in- 
cluded under the False Red Antwerp. 

All Summer (F). — Introduced by John Lewis Childs, of Floral 
Park, N. Y., as having been purchased from Mrs. A. A. Stowe. Said 
to have come from Mexico, by way of California. Recommended 
for its ability to endure extreme heat. 

Alpine (F). — Imported from the Mediterranean with Cretan Red 
and Flesh-colored by William R. Prince, who believed them to be 
closely related. 

Alton. — Introduced by The Gilbertson Nursery Company of Iowa. 
Said to be hardy, productive, of high quality, with a long fruiting 
season. 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 177 

Amazon (F).— Sent out from Edesville, Md., as a new variety, but 
thought by those who received it to be the Fontenay. 

American Red (Common Red, English Red). — Prince states in 
the Pomological Manual published in 1832, that although this is a 
native of New York, growing naturally in the Catskill mountains, 
it is frequently termed English Red. He says the shoots are of a 
dark red hue and grow very long. The spines on the present year's 
shoots are purplish in color near the base, but greenish, with brown 
or purplish barbs or points on the upper part. The fruit is one of 
the earliest to mature, of medium size, fine flavor and greatly es- 
teemed. He comments on the fact that this is the only variety 
grown to any extent for the New York market, and that there were 
nearly one hundred acres on Long Island devoted to its culture at 
that time. Evidently this is a forerunner of American Red raspberry 
culture, but undoubtedly plants from various sources passed under 
this name. 

Andrews.— Thought by J. T. Lovett to be identical with High- 
land Hardy, while James Smith, of Iowa, is positive that this and 
the Highland Hardy are only the Kirtland renamed. 

Arnold Orange (Orange King) (F) .—Originated with Charles 
Arnold, Paris, Ont. Fruit large, dark orange color, unsurpassed for 
flavor. Said to be a yellow-cap crossed with Rubus Idoeus. 

Arnold Red (F). — Origin same as the previous; the best known of 
Mr. Arnold's seedlings. Said to bear a good crop both in July and 
in September. Also said to be a cross between the yellow-cap, 
Rubus occidentalis, and Rubus Idaus. 

Arnold Yellow (Yellow Canada) (F). — Of the same origin and 
parentage as the two preceding. Fruit nearly white; plant of a 
peculiar albino appearance. 

Babcock (H).— Sent to the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station in 
1892, by Daniel W. Babcock. Canes purplish, thickly beset with 
weak prickles. 

Bagley Perpetual (Bagley's Everbearing) .—Originated about 
1854, at New Haven, Conn. Introduced in 1858 by A. Bridgeman, 
a florist of New York. 

Baker (F).— A seedling of Merveille des Quatre Saisons. Raised 
by Mr. Parnell, of Cincinnati. 



178 Bush-Fruits 

Barnet (Cornwall's Prolific, Cornwall's Seedling, Lord Exmouth, 
Large Red, Barnet Antwerp, Barnet Cane) (F). — An old English 
variety, said by Prince to resemble Red Antwerp, but distinguished 
by its branching canes and long, slender, reddish prickles. 

Barter. — First grown by William Barter, of Penryn, Placer county, 
Cal., to whom it was given as a "foundling." Grown in the foot-hill 
regions of that state. 

Baumforth (Baumforth's Seedling) (F). — Originated in England 
from seed of the Northumberland Fillbasket. 

Beckwiih (H). — An unnamed chance seedling, which originated 
with Professor M. H. Beckwith, Newark, Del. Described by him 
as a red berry, not purple, reproducing by tips. Fruit resembling 
the black-caps in shape, aromatic, of excellent quality. 

Beehive. — Introduced by Messrs. Winter & Co., of the Linnsean 
Botanic Garden, Flushing, N. Y. 

Berkeley (Dwinelle, Kelsey, New French). — Prolific, large and 
handsome. — -Ashley Nursery Catalogue, California. 

Biggar Seedling (F). — Raised by C. A. Biggar, of Drummondville, 
Ont., from an unknown European variety. Largely used as a parent 
variety by Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont., in producing 
his hybrid varieties. 

Black (English Black) (F). — Mentioned by Downing as a hybrid 
from England. 

Black Hills— Mentioned. Proc. N. J. Hort. Soc. 1900: 195. 

Brandywine (Susqueco, Wilmington). — Said to have been found 
near Brandywine Creek at Wilmington, Del. It first attracted 
attention in the Wilmington market, and was for a time called the 
Wilmington. Mr. Edward Tatnell, of that city, undertook to in- 
troduce it under the name Susqueco, the Indian name for the 
Brandywine. 

Brentford Cane (F). — An old English variety of little value. 

Brentford Red (F). — Mentioned by Prince in Pomological Manual. 

Brentford White (F).— Offered by Prince & Mills in 1822. 

Brilliant. — Midseason. Fruit bright, glossy red, large and firm, 
productive, ripening evenly. 

Bristol. — Hardy, vigorous, suckering immoderately. Fruit re- 
sembling the Brandywine, but not so large nor firm. 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 179 

Bromley Hill (F). — An old red, English variety. 
Bronze Queen— Mentioned. Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 13 (1891). 
Buckeye. — Received at the New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Geneva, New York, in 1910 from W. N. Scarff, New Carlisle, 
Ohio. Plants hardy, medium in height, stocky, susceptible to an- 
thracnose. Foliage large, dark green. Fruit late, somewhat lacking 
in size, dark red, with large drupes, giving a coarse, unattractive 
appearance, slightly crumbly, sprightly, almost tart; not equal to 
the best kinds; fall-bearing tendency. 

Burlington (Prosser) (F). — Originated by Benjamin Prosser, of 
Burlington, N. J. Downing states that two or three varieties were 
sent out under this name. 

Canada. — Sold by Prince & Mills of Flushing, Long Island, in 1822; 
also known as Purple Rose-flowering. Possibly Rubus odoratus. 

Canada Red. — Mentioned by Prince in 1832, as first noticed by 
him growing along the roadside a few miles from Montreal, where 
the plants were numerous. 

Cardinal (Griesa) (H).— Originated on the grounds of A. H. Griesa, 
Lawrence, Kans., in 1888, apparently from the seed of the Shaffer. 
Vigorous, propagating by tips when young, but throwing up some 
suckers as it grows older. Fruits large, soft, juicy, dark; particularly 
susceptible to anthracnose. 

Carleton. — Mentioned as on trial at the Experiment Station at 
Agassiz, B. C. 

Caroline (H).— Originated with S. P. Carpenter, New Rochelle, 
N. Y., and supposed to be a seedling of Brinckle's Orange, crossed 
by Golden-cap. Canes hardy and prolific, but not vigorous. Fruit 
medium, roundish-oblate, pale salmon, too soft for market, and dull 
and unattractive when over-ripe. The variety suckers freely, and 
may also be propagated by tips, with care. 
Carpenter No. 1. — 'Vigorous, early, bright red. 
Carter Prolific (F).— An English variety. 

Catawissa (H). — Found growing in a Quaker graveyard, at Cata- 
wissa, Columbia county, Pa. Brought to notice by Joshua Pierce, 
of Washington, D. C. Canes strong, branching, with few hooked 
spines; tender at the North. Fruit dark reddish-purple. Produced 
fruit in autumn to some extent. 



180 Bush-Fruits 

Cham-plain (F). — A chance seedling found in the garden of Mr. 
Macomber, of Grand Isle county, Vt. Believed to be from seed 
of White Antwerp, which it much resembles in the character of 
its canes. Introduced by Ellwanger & Barry in 1892. 

Charles the Bold (F). — Mentioned as one of Arnold's hybrids. — 
Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 263. 

Chester. — Mentioned as good in Michigan. 

Christine (F). — A late red variety sent out by E. P. Roe. 

Cincinnati Red Antwerp. — Mentioned as grown in Wisconsin 
about 1874.— Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. Ill : 263. Perhaps the same 
as False Red Antwerp. 

Citizen (H). — A hybrid between Gregg and Cuthbert, produced by 
Professor William Saunders, London, Ont. 

Clarke (F). — Raised by E. E. Clarke, New Haven, Conn. Ap- 
parently one of the best adapted foreign varieties for our climate. 

Cline (F). — A chance seedling sent out for trial by G. W. Cline, 
Winona, Ont., in 1893. 

Coleman No. 1. — Fruit small, soft, fine-flavored. 

Cole Prolific. — Exhibited at the Chicago Exposition in 1893 by 
the Fruit Growers' Association of Ontario. Found growing wild 
on the farm of R. D. Cole, of Port Dalhousie, Ontario. 

Colonel Wilder (F). — A seedling raised by Dr. W. D. Brinckll, of 
Philadelphia, Pa., from seed of the Fastolf, and named in honor 
of Marshall P. Wilder. Fruit very delicate yellowish white. 

Colossal (H).— Sent by I. F. Street, of West Middleton, Ind., to 
the United States Department of Agriculture, in 1892. A seedling 
of Shaffer, which it closely resembles. 

Columbian (H). — Said to be a seedling of Cuthbert grown near 
Gregg, on the grounds of J. T. Thompson, Oneida, N. Y. A variety 
of the Shaffer type, which it very much resembles. A strong, vig- 
orous grower, and very productive. Fruit large, moderately juicy, 
fairly firm, nearly sweet, somewhat darker in color than the Shaffer, 
ripening a little later. Columbian has now become the leading com- 
mercial variety of the hybrid type. 

Cook's Seedling. — Reported by Dewain Cook, of Windom, Minn., 
as exceedingly hardy and very productive. 

Cope (Vice-President Cope) (F). — Originated with Dr. Brinckl6, 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 181 

and named in honor of Caleb Cope, vice-president of the American 
Pomological Society for Pennsylvania in 1852. Thomas calls it 
a late sub-variety of the Red Antwerp. 

Cornish (F).— An English variety long discarded. 

Cox Honey (F).— An old English white variety. 

Craig.— A seedling of unknown parentage. Originated by Pro- 
fessor Saunders, of Ontario, and named in honor of Professor John 

Craig. . 

Cretan Red (F).— Imported from the Mediterranean by Prince. 

Crimson Beauty.— Found by Dr. Stayman, of Leavenworth, Kans., 
in 1875, growing in a patch of Imperial. Introduced by A. M. 
Purdy, of Palmyra, N. Y. 

Crimson Cluster.— Described.— Ninth Annual Rept. Geneva 
(N. Y.) Exp. Sta. 

Crimson Queen.— A variety offered by L. L. May & Co. 

Crystal White (F).— A seedling originated by A. J. Cay wood, of 
Marlboro, N. Y. Fruit light lemon color. Possibly belongs to the 
purple-cane class. 

Cushing (F).— Raised by Dr. Brinckle, of Philadelphia, and named 
in honor of J. P. Cushing, of Watertown, Mass. 

Cuthbert (Conover, Queen of the Market, Quinby's Favorite).— 
Probably the best known of all red raspberries, and the most de- 
sirable single market sort. It was a chance seedling found by 
Thomas Cuthbert in his garden at Riverdale, now in New York 
city, about 1865. It is a strong, vigorous, upright grower, some- 
times branching; spines short, stout, purplish, rather numerous 
toward the base, but often wanting toward the tips. Fruit large, 
dark crimson, obtuse conical, grains rather small and compact. 
Flesh quite firm, juicy, sprightly, and of fair quality. Its chief 
defect as a market berry is its color, which is too dark. Mr. Conover, 
the asparagus man, seeing its value, spread it in his neighborhood, 
giving it undesignedly the name Conover. In New Jersey it was 
disseminated by William Parry as Queen of the Market. It is still 
the leading commercial red raspberry. Ezra Brainerd of Middle- 
bury, Vt., a careful student of the genus Rubus, is led to think that 
Cuthbert has an admixture of foreign blood in its make-up. 
Delaware (F).— Said to be an American seedling of the Hornet. 



182 Bush-Fruits 

Diadem (F). — Produced by Charles Arnold, of Ontario, by cross- 
ing the American White-cap with Franconia, a seedling of this cross 
with White Four-seasons, and the offspring of this by Hornet, 
Imperial, and Fontenay, the Diadem being one of the resulting 
seedlings. 

Dictator (H). — Said to be a cross between Shaffer and Gregg, pro- 
duced by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, Cal. 

Donboro. — Originated at the New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Geneva, New York, in 1898, from Loudon x Marlboro. 
Plants hardy except in the most severe winters, very productive, 
stockier than either parent. Foliage attractive dark green; berries 
large, holding up in size during the season, attractive light red, very 
firm, equal to Marlboro in flavor and quality, ripening in midseason. 

Double-Bearing Red (Perpetual-Bearing, Twice-Bearing, Late 
Liberian, Late Cane, etc.) (F). — Mentioned by Prince and by 
Bridgeman. Downing says, it was formerly esteemed for its autumn 
bearing habit, but was then superseded by better kinds. 

Downing (F). — A seedling of the Orange, by Charles Downing. , 

Duhring (F). — A seedling of Hornet originated by Henry Duhring, 
of Belmont, near Philadelphia. 

Dyack Seedling (F).— Imported by Robert Buist, of Philadelphia, 
about 1840, and known only as a parent of Brinckle's Orange. 

Duncan (H). — A hybrid between Gregg and Cuthbert, produced 
by Professor William Saunders, of Ontario. Fruit large, purple, of 
better quality than the Shaffer, ripening later. Canes strong, vig- 
orous, propagating both by suckers and by tips. 

Early Prolific (H). — A seedling raised from the Philadelphia by 
Oscar Felton, of Camden county, N. J. Free from thorns. Also an 
old English variety. 

Early Richmond. — Mentioned in Garden and Forest, 1892, p. 458, 
as grown in Cayuga county, N. Y. 

Early White.— Mentioned. Hovey's Mag. of Hort. 1837, p. 23. 

Eastern King. — Found by O. A. King, of Deering, Maine, in a 
garden in the town of Westbrook, about 1864 or 1865. Dull red. 

Elizabeth. — One of D. W. Herstine's seedlings, examined and de- 
scribed by a committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society 
of 1870. 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 183 

Ellisdale (H).— Found growing wild on the Ellisdale farm, in Iowa, 
in 1856, by J. E. Johnson. Introduced by H. A. Terry, of Crescent, 
Iowa. Elsdale, from Nebraska, mentioned in Hovey's Magazine 
1865: 122, is probably this. 

Elm City— "A hardy sort. Size and flavor much like Philadel- 
phia. Eight to ten days later than other varieties."— Downing. " A 
thornless variety, vigorous in growth, hardy and productive. Fruit 
large, good color, firm and sweet."— Ohio Hort, Soc. Rept. 1807: 114. 

Emily (F). — One of Dr. Brinckle's seedlings. 

Empire (F). — A seedling of Biggar raised by Prof. William Saund- 
ers, of London, Ont. 

Empire.— Originated by L. E. Wardell, Marlboro, N. Y., from 
seed of Ruby, pollinated by Coutant. Said to be healthy, hardy 
and productive; fruit large, blight crimson, good. New, promising. 

English Cane (Twice-Bearing) (F).— For sale by Prince & Mills, 
of Flushing, L. I., in 1822. 

English Giant (F).— Imported from Denmark, by W. D. Barnes & 
Son, Middlehope, N. Y. 

English Globe (F). — Mentioned by Downing. 

English Red Cane (English Purple, False Red Cane, Allen).— 
Mentioned under this name and synonymy by F. R. Elliott as a va- 
riety much grown by market-gardeners in 1865. — Mich. Exp. Sta. 
Bull. Ill : 273. Possibly the same as False Red Antwerp. 

English White (Old English Yellow[?]) (F).— For sale by Prince 
& Mills, of Flushing, L. I., in 1822 at 8 cents each. The White 
Antwerp sold at 25 cents each, and the American White at 12j^ 
cents each. 

Erwood Everbearing. — On trial on the grounds of The Rural New- 
Yorker in 1879. 

Eureka (H).— A seedling of the third generation from Shaffer, 
larger and brighter red. Originated with Luther Burbank. 

Everbearing Red (F).— Mentioned by William Parry in 1869. 

Everbearing Tree.— Introduced by Bradley Brothers, Makanda, 
Illinois. Said to grow in branching, tree form. 

Excelsior.— Said to have originated in Wisconsin. A variety of 
this name, perhaps the same, is reported as worthless in Ohio. 
False Red Antwerp (Allen, Allen's Antwerp, English Red Cane, 



184 Bush-Fruits 

Kirtland). — In 1828, or thereabouts, an English gardener brought 
to Cleveland, Ohio, a variety without name. It proved hardy, pro- 
ductive, valuable. The Red Antwerp was then the standard variety, 
and this sort was called by that name. Later, when the true Red 
Antwerp came to be known, this one took the prefix "False," and 
came to be a popular market sort, under the name of False Red 
Antwerp. Still later, three varieties came to be distributed as this, 
two of them probably having originated as seedlings in the original 
plantation. Later F. R. Elliott sent to an occupant of lands of 
Lewis F. Allen, plants gathered indiscriminately from a plantation 
of the False Red Antwerp raspberry. In time it was found that the 
Allen raspberry embraced all the varieties enumerated under the 
name False Red Antwerp. Professor I. P. Kirtland at one time gave 
plants of the False Red Antwerp, Fastolf, and Franconia raspberries 
to Mrs. Follet, of Sandusky, the former being hardy and the latter 
tender. After a time the tender sorts died out, while the hardy one 
attracted the attention of H. B. Lum, of Sandusky, who, without 
knowledge of its character, but knowing that it came from the 
garden of Professor Kirtland, named and sent it out as a seedling of 
the Professor's, and under his name. 

The botanical relationship of the Allen raspberry is a matter 
of dispute. Thomas Meehan believed that it belonged to the type 
of Rubus Idosus, while A. S. Fuller thought there could be no ques- 
tion about its being a true R. strigosus. It is quite evident that more 
than one variety must have been known under this name. 

Fastolf (Filby) (F). — One of the best English varieties, said to 
have originated near the ruins of an old castle of that name in Great 
Yarmouth. First advertised by Yuell & Co., 1843. Figured, 
Hovey's Mag. 1846: 299. Crozier cites a reference indicating an 
earlier origin. 

Flesh-colored (Frambosier Couleur de Chair) (F). — Said to have 
been obtained by William R. Prince from the Mediterranean with 
the Cretan Red, which it resembles. 

Fontenay (Belle de Fontenay, Belle d'Orleans, Amazon) (F). — A 
French variety with stocky, vigorous, somewhat branching canes, 
suckering freely, especially when young. One of the hardiest and 
most reliable European varieties. Crozier spells this name Fontenoy. 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 185 

Four-Seasons Red (Merveille de Quatre Saisons, October Red) 
(F). — A French variety with a well-developed autumn-bearing habit. 
Thought by many American cultivators to be the same as Fontenay. 
The variety imported from Germany by the German Nursery Com- 
pany of Beatrice, Neb., under the name of Merveille is probably the 
same. 

Four-Seasons Yellow (White Four-Seasons, October Yellow) (F). — 
Imported from France in 1863 by Charles Arnold, of Paris, Ont. 
Said to be a seedling of the preceding, and similar to it. 

Franconia (Abel, Naomi [?]) (F) .—Received from Messrs. Vil- 
morin, of Paris, many years ago by Samuel G. Perkins. Said to 
have been little known in European catalogues except as returned 
from this country. It was one of the comparatively well-known 
foreign varieties on this side of the water. 

French (R. M. Conklin's). — Mentioned by William Parry, in 
1869, as declining in favor. 

French (Vice-President French) (F). — Raised by Dr. Brinckle, 
from Fastolf crossed with Yellow Antwerp, and named in honor 
of B. U. French, vice-president of the Massachusetts Horticultural 
Society. 

French Everbearing (F) . — Said to have been imported from France 
by California nurserymen. 

Fulton (F). — A seedling of the French raised by Dr. Brinckle. 
Named in honor of James D. Fulton, of Pennsylvania. 

Ganargua (H). — Found growing wild by Stephen Katkamier, of 
Farmington, Ontario county, N. Y., about 1867. Described as 
vigorous, hardy, and productive, possessing the everbearing habit. 
Fruit dark red, approaching purplish brown. Propagates from 
tips. 

Garden (Doolittle's Red Flavored Black-Cap) (H). — A variety in- 
troduced by H. H. Doolittle, of Oaks Corners, N. Y. The Purple- 
cane raspberry was also known under this name. Whether this 
is the same, or whether, indeed, it might have been a true black- 
cap, it is difficult to say. 

Gardiner (H). — Mentioned as a new variety of unknown origin, 
intermediate between the Purple-cane and the black-cap. 

Garnet (H). — A seedling of the Philadelphia, produced in 1885 by 



186 Bush-Fruits 

Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Described as hardy, 
vigorous, and productive. Fruit purplish red. 

General Patterson (F). — A seedling of the Colonel Wilder raised by 
Dr. Brinckle; named for General Patterson, of Pennsylvania. 

Genesee (F). — Red; sent out by Z. H. Harris, of Rochester, N. Y. 

Gillard's Seedling (F). — An English sort of good quality. — Fuller. 

Gladstone (Carpenter's No. 2, Erie) (H). — A chance seedling, orig- 
inating with Charles Carpenter, of Kelley's Island, Ohio, who sent 
it out about 1888, first as Carpenter's No. 2, and then as Erie. Later 
it was introduced by Green's Nursery Co., of Rochester, N. Y., as 
Gladstone. Described as vigorous and hardy, producing consider- 
able fruit in autumn. Fruit medium size, dark red, of excellent 
quality. 

Gold. — A yellow variety sent to the Michigan Experiment Station 
by M. H. Ridgeway, Wabash, Ind. 

Golden Alaska. — Introduced by John A. Salzer, of La Crosse, 
Wis., in 1891. Reported to have been found in Alaska. 

Golden Cluster. — Not entirely hardy, making but few plants; fruit 
golden yellow, juicy, of high quality. 

Golden Queen. — This was found on the grounds of Ezra Stokes, 
of Camden, N. J., about 1883, in a patch of Cuthbert. To all in- 
tents and purposes, it is a Cuthbert with yellow fruit. Sports in 
color from this variety are not uncommon. Instances are recorded 
where part of the berries on a shoot have been yellow and part red, 
and even the individual fruits have been variegated. The variety 
is one of the most satisfactory yellow-fruited sorts, possessing much 
the same qualities as its parent, the Cuthbert. 

Golden Prague (F). — Imported from Denmark by W. D. Barnes & 
Son, of Middiehope, N. Y. 

Grant. — Mentioned in 1869, as a new variety from Auburn, N. Y. 

Grape (Mason's Seedling Grape) (F). — Raised from seed by Mr. 
Mason, a gardener, at Charleston, Mass. Said to have been pro- 
duced by crossing the Scarlet Rockingham and Red Antwerp. 

Grape Vine. — Sent out in 1878 by William Holland, Plymouth, 
Ind., who obtained his original plants from John German, of Indiana. 
Ornamental, but of no value for fruit. 

Hansell. — A chance seedling found on the farm of Hansell Bros., 




Plate V. Raspberries. — Black Pearl above; Herbert beneath. 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 187 

near Beverly, N. J., about 1875. Introduced by J. T. Lovett in 1882. 
Quite prominent at one time as an early variety. 

Harris.— Sent out by Z. H. Harris, Rochester, N. Y., in 1889. ^ 
Haymaker (H).— Vigorous, hardy and productive. Fruit of high 
quality, not so dark as Columbian, firmer and said to be larger and 
not to crumble. 

Hawkins Orange.— Of no value.— William Parry. 
Heebner (F).— Described by John Craig, at Ottawa, Canada, as a 
large red berry of the Clarke and Hornet type. 

Henrietta (F).— A seedling from Connecticut, introduced by 
G. H. & J. H. Hale. Said to be similar to Fontenay. 

Herbert.— Origin Ottawa, Canada. Very hardy, especially adapted 
to cold climates. Fruit large, early, bright to deep red, juicy, sprightly 
and of high quality. Considered one of the best varieties in the 
Hudson River Valley. Seedlings of Herbert at the Geneva, N. Y., 
Experiment Station lacked vigor as a rule. (See Plate V.) 

Herstine.— This originated with Mr. D. W. Herstine, of Branch- 
town, Pa., according to whose statement it was raised from seed 
of the Allen raspberry, which had been planted in alternate rows 
with the Philadelphia. Described by William Parry in the following 
words: "As large as Hornet, bright as Pearl, hardy and productive 
as Philadelphia, and delicious as Allen." 

Highland Hardy (Highland Antwerp).— A sport or chance seed- 
ling which originated near Highland village, on the Hudson, about 
1870. 

Hildreth (H).— " Introduced by Isaac Hildreth, of Big Stream 
Point, N. Y., as a native sort found near that place."— Downing. 

Hiram.— Sent out by W. J. Bradt, of Hannibal, N. Y. Thought 
to be a cross between Rubus strigosus and Rubus Idceus. 

Hornet (F).— A French variety raised by M. Souchet, of Bagnolet, 
near Paris. Introduced here by Aubrey & Souchet, of Carpenter's 
Landing, N. J., about 1859. Fig., Gar. Month. 1 : 122. 

Howell— Mentioned by F. R. Elliott in the Transactions of the 
Ohio Pomological Society for 1865, as being then in cultivation. 

Hudson River Antwerp (New Red Antwerp, North River Ant- 
werp) (F).— Said to have been obtained from England by Mr. Bridge, 
of Poughkeepsie, N. Y. E. P. Roe, in "Success with Small Fruits," 



188 Bush-Fruits 

gives an interesting account of the rise and fall of this variety in 
the Hudson River Valley. 

Hudson River Red. — Exhibited before the Cincinnati Horticul- 
tural Society in 1860 by F. W. Slack, of Kentucky, who was then 
growing it for the Cincinnati market. 

Huntsman Giant (F). — -A seedling of the Franconia raised by F. W. 
Huntsman, of Flushing, N. Y., who grew many seedlings, hoping to 
gain a hardy variety equal to the more tender kinds. 

Hybrid Crimson Mammoth (H). — Found wild at Adams, N. Y., by 
Dr. E. R. Maxson, who brought it into cultivation. 

Idaho. — Found growing in an old garden in Idaho. Plant stocky, 
branching, not very tall, producing less suckers than most varieties; 
very hardy. Fruit large, shaped like a black-cap, deep rich red, 
ripening from July to October, producing more in autumn than 
most so-called everbearing sorts. 

Imperial (F). — A large French variety introduced by Aubrey & 
Souchet, of Carpenter's Landing, N. J. 

Imperial Red (Red Imperial) . — A variety grown in New Jersey. 

Imperial White (F). — Catalogued by Ellwanger & Barry, in 1860. 

Iowa (Eaton). — Found in Iowa. Named and introduced by M. J. 
Wragg. Rather dwarf, canes strong, thornless, leaf dark and heavy. 
Early, productive, large, rich dark red, of excellent quality but tends 
to crumble. Fruit sometimes attacked by mildew when ripe. More 
generally catalogued under the name of Eaton. 

/. X. L. — A chance seedling discovered by Charles Schlessler, 
of Naperville, 111., in 1887. 

Johnson. — Received from Cincinnati by E. Y. Teas, of Indiana, 
in 1875, and reported to be much like the Philadelphia. 

June. — This variety is the result of a cross between Loudon and 
Marlboro, in 1897, on the grounds of the Geneva, N. Y., Experiment 
Station, and disseminated from there in 1909. Described as more 
vigorous than either of its parents and equally hardy. Plant up- 
right, healthy and very productive, producing but few suckers. 
Begins ripening the last of June at Geneva and continues through 
a long season. Fruit bright red, larger than Cuthbert but less 
conical, holding its size unusually well till the end of the season, 
firm, keeping and shipping well, quality excellent. 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 189 

Jouet (F). — A French variety introduced here by Aubrey & 
Souchet. 

Kenyan. — Introduced by O. A. Kenyon, of McGregor, la., who 
found it growing among black raspberries about 1885. Thought to 
be identical with Loudon as grown at the Mich. Exp. Station. 

Keystone. — Originated with A. L. Felten, of Philadelphia, Pa. 

King (Thompson's King) (F). — Sent out by the Cleveland Nur- 
sery Co., of Rio Vista, Va., in 1892. Early, round, light crimson, 
juicy and good. Grown from seed by T. Thompson, Richmond, Va. 

Kirtland. — See False Red Antwerp. 

Knevett Giant (F). — Imported from England by Marshall P. 
Wilder in 1843, having been received as a present from Messrs. 
Chandler & Co., of Vauxhall, who stated that the ones they gave 
to Mr. Wilder were all they had ever had. 

Kreigh. — Brought to notice about 1880. 

Lady Ann (F). — A seedling of Biggar Seedling, produced by Pro- 
fessor William Saunders, of London, Ont. 

Large-fruited Monthly (Rivers's Large-fruited Monthly, Rivers's 
New Monthly) (F). — Said to have been imported from the continent 
to England by Thomas Rivers, in 1847. Brought here later. 

Large White.— Mentioned. Hovey's Mag. Hort. 1837: 23. 

Lindley. — Raised by Joseph B. Lindley, of Newark, N. J., early 
in the sixties. Said to be a hybrid between the Fastolf and the Na- 
tive Red. 

Linton (Red). — Mentioned about 1870. 

Little Prolific (H). — A red variety originated with John Little, of 
Ontario. Sent out in 1883. Probably Rubus neglectus. 

Longworth (F). — One of Dr. Brinckle's Seedlings. 

Lord Beaconsfield (F). — Mentioned as an English variety on trial 
at the Experimental Farm at Agassiz, B. C. 

Lost Rubies (F). — A variety said to have been found growing in 
a bed of Naomi, by A. M. Purdy, and sent to Charles A. Green, of 
Rochester, N. Y., who introduced it. Regarded by many as identical 
with Naomi. 

Loudon. — Originated by Frank W. Loudon, of Janesville, Wis., 
who states that it is a seedling of Turner crossed by Cuthbert. Canes 
vigorous, hardy and productive. Berry large, somewhat conical. 



190 Bush-Fruits 

Grains large, with a suture, firm and of a good red color, but not 
equal to Cuthbert in quality. Introduced by Charles A. Green, of 
Rochester. Prominent at one time. 

Magnum Bonum (F). — Introduced from England about 1540. 
Said to be similar to. if not the same as. Yellow Antwerp. 

Manitou. — Grown in Illinois. Similar to Cuthbert. 

Marion's Favorite. — Mentioned. Proc. X. J. Hort. Soc. 1900: 195. 

Marlboro. — A popular variety originated by A. J. Caywood, 
of Marlboro. X. Y._. who described it as "A cross of the Highland 
Hardy, and a seedling started from English Globe and the Hudson 
Paver Antwerp thirty years ago. It is a larger grower, with stronger 
canes than any known variety; hardy in the fuUest sense; berries 
averaging three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and when not re- 
tarded by long, severe drought, many of them will average one inch. 
It will remain four days on the bushes after ripe, and is then market- 
able. It is bright crimson in color, and does not lose its brilliancy 
when over-ripe." This is one of the best known and most generally 
prized early market sorts. Hardy, vigorous, productive, and a 
thoroughly good, all-round berry. The leading market variety in 
some localities, especially along Lake Erie. 

Marldon. — A seedling produced at the Geneva. X. Y., Experiment 
Station by crossing Marlboro with Loudon. Plants were distributed 
during the spring of 190S. The plants are described as of Marlboro 
type but more vigorous and stockier, producing many suckers and 
soon likely to become crowded. Hardy, productive and healthy. 
Fruit large, retaining its size well as the season advances, but ripens 
in a comparatively short time, about one week ahead of Cuthbert, 
firm, dark red, of fair quality. 

Mary. — Raised from seed by Professor William Saunders, ; of 
London. Ont. Fruit fight red, as large as Cuthbert. 

May Orange. — Offered for sale by L. L. May i: Co. 

Mendocino. — A Pacific coast- variety. Said to have originated 
in Mendocino county, Cal. : used by Luther Burbank, in the produc- 
tion of some of his seedlings. 

Meredith Queen. — Discovered growing wild in the town of Meredith, 
Delaware county. X. Y., in 1SS0, by E. J. Brownell, who sent out 
plants for trial in 1SS3. Bearing canes dark brown; new growth 



Varieties of Red. and Hybrid Raspberries 191 

purplish green, tips red: suckers freely. Fruit of pale orange or 
reddish salmon color. A stric.ly native red raspberry except in color. 

Merkel (H). — Described as hardy and productive, not throwing 
up suckers. Fruit firm, with somewhat of a currant flavor. Darker 
than Cuthbert, resembling Gregg in shape and size. 

Michigan (Michigan Early). — Introduced about 1883 by William 
Parr.', of New Jerse3\ It was generally supposed to have originated 
in Michigan, though William Parry, Jr., is under the impression 
that the first plants came from Tennessee. 

Miller (Miner's Woodland). — A popular variety at one time in 
the Delaware peninsula. Origin same as the Brandywine. De- 
scribed as strong, stocky, hardy and productive. Fruit large, bright 
crimson, firm, sprightly, subacid, of excellent quality. Resembles 
Brandywine but ripens earlier. 

Miller Favorite. — Mentioned as on trial at the Michigan Experi- 
ment Station in 1887. — Bull. Ill : 291. 

Minnesota No. 1. — A seedling of Ki n g x Loudon, introduced by 
Charles Haralson of the Experimental Sub-station at Excelsior, 
Minn. Similar to Xo. 4 but ripening about a week earlier. 

Minnesota No. 4- — Of the same origin and parentage as the pre- 
ceding. Considered one of the hardiest of raspberries, a strong grower 
and resistant to disease. Fruit ripening about a week later than 
King, much larger than either parent, dark red, of fair quality and 
very firm, standing long shipments well and being one of the best 
market varieties in Minnesota. 

Minnetonka. — A red raspberry originated about 1890 by F. J. 
Empenger, Maple Plain, Minn., who had Turner, Cuthbert and wild 
red raspberries growing together. He dusted pollen from a branch 
of the wild berries on Turner and Cuthbert, from the Turner on the 
wild and on Cuthbert, and from Cuthbert on Turner and the wild 
plants. He used seed from all three, mixing it for planting, and 
secured the Minnetonka among the seedlings. 

Mohler Xo. 1 . — Mentioned as a red variety on trial at the Indiana 
Experiment Station. 

Montclair (H). — Originated on the grounds of E. and J. C. Wil- 
liams, Montclair, X. J., and supposed to be a seedling of the Phila- 
delphia. 



192 Bush-Fruits 

Mote Everbearing (H). — Raised by L. S. Mote, of West Milton, 
Ohio. An everbearing variety resembling Catawissa.' — Downing. 

Mrs. Ingersoll (F). — One of Dr. Brinckle's seedlings. Yellow. 

Mrs. Wilder (F). — A seedling of the Colonel Wilder, similar in 
color. Named by Dr. Brinekle. 

Mrs. Wood (H). — Originated with Mrs. Reuben Wood, near Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 

Muriel (F). — A seedling raised from Biggar Seedling by Professor 
Saunders. 

Muskberry. — Sent out by John Lewis Childs of Floral Park, N. Y. 
An extremely rank grower, spreading badly from the roots and be- 
coming a nuisance. Fruit of good size and attractive but insipid 
and disagreeable. A musky odor is thrown off by the plants. 

Muskingum (Shaffer's Sister, Melott's Favorite) (H). — Originated 
in the orchard of Mrs. Simeon Ellis, Coshocton county, Ohio, near 
the Muskingum River. Named and introduced by James Madison, 
of Chili, Ohio. Similar to Shaffer, but not as tall. 

My Seedling. — Mentioned by George J. Kellogg in the Report 
of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society for 1887, p. 241. 

Naomi (F). — Said to have been produced from seed sown by Mrs. 
Governor Wood, of Rockport, Ohio, about 1850. Introduced by 
F. R. Elliott. The question of the identity of this variety with 
the Franconia was investigated by a committee of the Ohio State 
Horticultural Society in 1868. It was found that the stock sent 
out from Mrs. Wood's place was badly mixed. She grew seedlings 
from the Red Antwerp and Franconia, and from the mixture dis- 
tributed plants. The sort which proved the best, and thus came 
to survive as the true Naomi, was doubtless the Franconia itself, 
or a seedling of it, which was so nearly like the parent as to be indis- 
tinguishable from it. 

Narragansett (F). — A seedling of Brinckle's Orange raised by 
John F. Jolls, of Providence, R. I. 

Nebraska. — Mentioned in 1869, as no longer popular. 

Newark. — Mentioned as on trial in 1892, at the Oklahoma Ex- 
periment Station. 

New Everbearing (F). — Noticed. Proc. Cincinnati Hort. Soc. 
1861. 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 193 

New Prolific. — Mentioned. Rep. Kan. Hort. Soc. for 1884. 

New Rochelle (H). — Supposed to be a seedling of the Catawissa. 
Raised by S. P. Carpenter, New Rochelle, N. Y., and apparently- 
introduced by E. W. Carpenter, of Rye, N. Y., though the Country 
Gentleman for 1881 speaks of it as having originated with W. S. 
Carpenter. 

Niagara. — A Canada variety of good flavor and texture; color 
dark. 

Northern Wonder. — Spoken of as an excellent variety found by 
one of the Feltens — Gar. Month. 13 : 246. 

Northumberland Fillbasket (F). — English. Introduced about 1855. 

Norwalk (F). — Introduced in 1879, by Mallory & Downs, of South 
Norwalk, Conn. Thought by Lovett to be the same as Naomi and 
Franconia. 

Norwood (Norwood's Prolific) (H). — A variety originated in 
Massachusetts, propagating by tips. Fruit similar to Philadelphia. 

Nottingham Scarlet (F). — An old English variety, introduced be- 
fore 1850 by Marshall P. Wilder. 

Ohta. — A variety selected by Professor Hansen of South Dakota 
from a lot of 6000 hybrid seedling raspberries. It is the result of 
crossing a wild red raspberry from North Dakota with Minnetonka. 
It is described as hardy and very productive, with beautiful red 
fruit, which is fairly firm and of good quality. Introduced as a 
variety adapted to the rigorous climate of the Dakotas. Ohta is the 
Sioux Indian name for much or many. 

Olathe (Stayman's No. 5). — Originated by J. Stayman, of Leaven- 
worth, Kans., from seed of Reliance. 

Orange (Brinckle's Orange) (F). — This noted variety originated 
with Dr. W. D. Brinckle, of Philadelphia, in 1845. It long repre- 
sented the ideal quality to be sought in the raspberry. Roe speaks 
of it as a hybrid between Rubus Idozus and our native species. It 
was raised from seed of Dyack Seedling, an English variety of deep 
crimson color, but what the staminate parent was does not now ap- 
pear. According to Dr. Brinckle, it reproduced itself generally from 
seed. It is described as essentially an Antwerp, but more vigorous. 
Fruit of a beautiful buff color, and delicious flavor. It did not thrive 
under hot suns or upon light land, succeeding south of New York 



194 Bush-Fruits 

only in cool, moist soils and in shady locations. It always required 
winter protection. 

Osceola. — Originated in Osceola county, in northwestern Iowa. 

Palluau (F). — A French variety, described by Downing. 

Papier (F). — An old French variety. Known also as Le Noire or 
Tue-Homme. Introduced about 1820 at Bagnolet, near Paris. 

Parnell (F) . — Said to be a seedling of Merveille des Quatre Saisons, 
raised by Mr. Parnell, of Cincinnati. 

Parry's Nos. 1 and 2. — Originated with William Parry, of New 
Jersey, but not considered by him worth introducing. 

Patrician (F). — A temporary name applied by E. P. Roe to a 
variety imported from France by Mr. Downing. 

Pearl (Red Pearl). — Origin unknown. Cultivated considerably 
about Philadelphia at one time. 

Pennsylvanian. — A variety mentioned by Prince, in the Pomo- 
logical Manual, as obtained from a London nursery under the 
name Rubus Pennsylvanicus, but which he had later found to be 
identical with plants received from the forests of Maine. 

Percy (H). — A hybrid between Gregg and Cuthbert, produced by 
Professor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Much like Shaffer. 

Perfection. — Originated by F. W. Loudon, of Janesville, Wis., and 
said to be a cross between Cuthbert and Turner. Described as pro- 
ductive, large, handsome, of good color and flavor but not so firm 
as Cuthbert. 

The name is also applied to a variety said to have originated in 
the Hudson River Valley and described as much like the old Brandy- 
wine, a good grower, hardy and a heavy yielder but inclined to drop 
if not picked closely. Fruit of good size, bright red, firm. 

Philadelphia (H). — A chance seedling, found wild near Philadel- 
phia, Pa., about 1835, which proved itself to be hardy, productive, 
and well suited to light soils in the southern portions of the Middle 
states. Described as vigorous, tall, branching, almost free from 
spines. Fruit medium, roundish, dark crimson or purplish red; 
flesh rather soft, moderately juicy, mild subacid. — Downing. This 
variety resembles Rubus strigosus much more closely than do the 
Catawissa, Shaffer, and others of the true Purple-cane type; yet it 
is evidently intermediate between the red and black raspberries, and 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 195 

not a true red raspberry. Although propagating by suckers, these 
are produced but sparingly, and the fruit is darker in color than the 
true red raspberries. Occasionally it will root at the tips. 

Phoenix. — Fairly productive; fruit of good size, rich dark red, of 
high quality. Early and promising. 

Pilate (F). — A French variety, imported by Aubrey & Souchet. 

Pomona. — Introduced by William Parry about 1887. One of 
the most uniformly productive varieties grown at the Geneva 
(N. Y.) Experiment Station. Of vigorous growth and fine ap- 
pearance. Fruit a pleasing red, large and firm. Season very long. 

Pride of Kent (F) .—Originated by Mr. Fallstaff, of Kent, England. 
Imported about 1887 by Henry King, of Jefferson, Colo., and intro- 
duced in 1892 by R. S. Edwards, of Highland, Colo. 

Pride of the Hudson (F). — A chance seedling, which originated in 
the garden of T. H. Roe, of Newburg, N. Y., about 1872, and 
gave unusual promise. It was propagated and introduced by E. P. 
Roe. 

Prince Globose (F). — Raised by W. R. Prince, of Flushing, L. I. 

Prince of Wales (Cutbush's Prince of Wales) (F). — An English 
variety, mentioned by Downing. 

Princess Alice (F). — Fuller speaks of this as a new English variety, 
raised by Cutbush & Son, of Highgate, England. 

Prolific Red (F). — -Described by Prince in 1832. 

Pidlman. — A variety mentioned as on trial at the New York 
Experiment Station about 1884.— Mich. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1884 : 251. 

Purple Cane (Purple Prolific, English Purple, Red Prolific, Amer- 
ican Red Cane, Garden Raspberry, Huntsville, English Red, Allen 
and English Brown erroneously) (H). — This is probably the oldest 
cultivated variety of this type. It was grown about New York at 
least one hundred years ago. It is supposed to have been a native 
variety. Described as having strong, tall, recurved canes, often 
branching, reddish purple. Spines rather long, stiff, and moderately 
numerous. Berries small, purple, good, but too soft for market. 

Purple Dulcet (H).— Mentioned. 111. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1875 : 268. 

Queen Marguerite. — A red variety on trial in Michigan about 
1885. 

Rancocas. — Introduced by William H. Moon, of Morrisville, Pa., 



196 Bush-Fruits 

in 1884. Originated as a seedling on the farm of J. S. Hansell, taking 
its name from the place of its origin, on the Rancocas Creek. 

Ranere (St. Regis). — Grown in New Jersey for a time by a colony 
of Italian gardeners as Ranere. Later introduced by J. T. Lovett 
under the name St. Regis. Canes stocky, vigorous, hardy and pro- 
ductive, bearing both on young and on old canes. Early and con- 
tinuing to ripen until October. Fruit bright crimson, rich, sugary, 
meaty and a good keeper. Introduced as an everbearing but chiefly 
valuable for its main crop. 

Red Antwerp (Old Red Antwerp, Knevett's Antwerp, True Red 
Antwerp, Howland's Red Antwerp, Frambosier a Gros Fruit, Bur- 
ley) (F). — One of the oldest European varieties. It is supposed to 
have derived its name from the city of Antwerp, in Belgium, though 
the plant itself is said to have come from the Island of Malta. It is 
one of the best of the European sorts, and is still grown, even for 
market, in the United States. Described as having strong, long, 
yellowish green canes, slightly glaucous, tinged with purple, cov- 
ered with dark brown bristles. Bearing wood nearly smooth. Fruit 
large, conical, dark red, rich and sweet. Many other varieties have 
received this name at times. It is figured in the Report of the United 
States Department of Agriculture for 1866. 

Red Cane (F). — A favorite market variety at one time in the 
vicinity of Hartford, Conn. Introduced there without name, and 
was probably some well-known variety like the Hudson River 
Antwerp, or true Red Antwerp. — Mich. Ex. Sta. Bull. Ill : 303. 

Red Cluster. — Described by T. T. Lyon in 1893 as late, of medium 
size and of good quality. 

Re(e)der. — A seedling found near Stevensville, Mich., about 1875. 

Redfield (H). — Introduced by the Iowa Seed Company, of Des 
Moines, 1895. Discovered on the farm of D. W. Humphrew, near 
Redfield, Iowa. Resembles Shaffer. 

Red Jacket. — A recent introduction, closely resembling Cuthbert 
both in plant and fruit, but ripening later and in a shorter period of 
time. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 147. 

Red Queen. — Mentioned as no longer popular in 1869. 

Red Sweet (F). — Imported from Denmark by W. D. Barnes & Son, 
of Middlehope, N. Y. 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 197 

Reliance (H).— A descendant of Philadelphia, raised by 0. L. Fel- 
ten, of N. J. 

Richardson.— Mentioned as an inferior variety cultivated in the 
West.— Gar. Month. 1862 : 339. 

.Rider— Mentioned. Amer. Pom. Soc. Rept. 1891 : 119. 
Ridgeway.— From M. H. Ridgeway, Wabash, Ind. Thrifty but 
unproductive at the Michigan Experiment Station. 

Riley's Early.— A variety from New Jersey.— Downing. 
Rivers Orange (Large Orange, River's YeUow) (F).— Raised by 
Thomas Rivers, of England. 

Royal Church.— Originated on the farm of Royal Church, of Har- 
risonville, Ohio, near Herstine and Philadelphia. Fruit dark crim- 
son. May belong with the Rubus neglectus group. 

Royal Purple (H) .—Originated in Indiana. Claimed to be un- 
usually hardy, having withstood 35 degrees below zero uninjured. 
Vigorous, productive, ripening late, canes nearly thornless. Fruit 
large, very firm, easily picked and stands marketing well. 

Ruby.— Raised by D. W. Herstine. Canes strong, light green, 
shaded with purple, bearing very few spines. Fruit large, round, 
dark crimson. 

Ruby.— A seedling of Marlboro, which it closely resembles. One 
of the best market varieties in the Hudson River Valley.— R. N. Y. 
1910 : 1005. 

Russell Red.— Raised by Dr. G. W. Russell, of Hartford, Conn., 
from seed of the White Antwerp, grown near Red Cane. 

Salzer Everbearing Red (H).— Origin Illinois. Introduced by the 
John A. Salzer Seed Co., Lacrosse, Wis., as a cross between the 
Shaffer and the Marlboro. 

Sarah (H) .—Originated by Professor William Saunders, London, 
Ont., from seed of the Shaffer. A moderate grower, suckering freely, 
and -propagating only that way. 

Saunders Hybrid (No. 53?) (H).— A hybrid between Philadelphia 
and Mammoth Cluster, produced by William Saunders, of London, 
Ont. Said to propagate from tips only. 

Scarlet.— Under this name was disseminated a sort found mixed 
with the Allen as sent out. FuUer thought it likely to be Allen's 
Prolific. 



198 Bush-Fruits 

Scarlet Gem. — A seedling of the Crimson Beauty, originated by 
Dr. J. Stayman, of Leavenworth, Kans., in 1876. 

Segrist. — A chance seedling found among plants of Kansas by 
Samuel Segrist, Holton, Kansas, in 1903, and introduced by F. W. 
Dixon of that place in 1912. Plants stocky, healthy, productive; 
foliage large, thick, dark green; berries above medium in size, uni- 
form, roundish-conic, medium red, attractive, firm; good in quality, 
ripening late. 

Semper Fidelis (F). — An English variety, mentioned in Hovey's 
Magazine as new in 1863. 

Shaffer (Shaffer's Colossal) (H). — This is one of the best known 
varieties of this type. It originated in the garden of George Shaffer, 
near Scotsville, Monroe county, N. Y., about 1871. Introduced by 
Charles A. Green, of Rochester. It is a vigorous, upright grower, 
and one of the most productive raspberries known. Fruit large, 
dark red or purple, moderately firm, sprightly, subacid. Its color 
is too dark to be attractive, but if picked before fully ripe, while yet 
red, it looks fairly well in market. An excellent canning variety. 
It also dries well, being of more attractive color when dried than true 
red raspberries, and producing more pounds of dried fruit per bushel. 
In quality it is not far behind the red raspberries, with a richness 
not possessed by them. 

Shaffer Seedling No. 5 (H). — A seedling of Shaffer, mentioned as 
on trial at the Rhode Island Experiment Station. 

Sharpe (F) . — A seedling of unknown parentage, produced by Prof. 
William Saunders, of London, Ont. Similar to Heebner. 

Shipper's Pride. — Hardy, productive and an excellent shipper. 

Short-jointed Cane. — Described by Prince, in the Pomological 
Manual published in 1832, as almost spineless, with close, jointed 
canes. Crozier refers it to Rubus strigosus. 

Silver Queen (F). — A yellow varietjr, sent out for trial in 1885 by 
Robert Johnston, of Shortsville, N. Y., who obtained it from L. 
M. Macomber, of Vermont, under the name "Silver Skin." 

Sir John (F). — A seedling of Biggar's Seedling, produced by Pro- 
fessor William Saunders, of Ontario. 

Smith Purple (H). — Originated with B. F. Smith, of Lawrence, 
Kans. Has all the" black-cap characteristics except color. 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 199 

Souchetti (White Transparent) (F). — Raised by Messrs. Souchet, 
near Paris; introduced here by Aubrey & Souchet. 

Spring Grove (F). — Mentioned by Fuller. 

Stayman No. 1 (H) . — A seedling of Shaffer originated with Dr. J. 
Stayman, of Leavenworth, Kans., in 1884. Canes upright with few 
laterals, hence lacking in productiveness. Fruit large, rich dark 
red, of good quality. 

Stayman No. £.— Mentioned. Mo. Hort. Soc. Rep. 1883 : 203. 

St. Louis. — A popular variety in the vicinity of St. Louis, Mo., 
about 1867. 

Stoever. — A form of the American Red, found wild near Lake 
Dunmore, Vermont, by Jefferson F. Stoever, who removed and 
fruited it near Philadelphia, in 1859. 

Sucre de Metz (F). — A white, foreign variety introduced by L. 
Ritz, of Ohio, in 1869. 

Sunbeam. — Introduced by N. E. Hansen of South Dakota, the 
only one saved from a batch of several thousand seedlings. Vigorous, 
perfectly hardy in Dakota, sturdy and upright in growth. Fruit 
bright crimson, firm and of good quality. 

Superb (F). — Mentioned by Fuller as an old, foreign sort. 

Superb (Churchman's Superb) (H). — Originated by John Church- 
man, of Burlington, N. J., and supposed by him to be a seedling 
of Philadelphia. Propagates by suckers. 

Superb d'Angleterre (F). — Also mentioned by Fuller. 

Superlative (F). — Introduced by Ellwanger & Barry, of Rochester, 
N. Y., in 1892. Described as hardy, with stout canes. Fruit large, 
conical, handsome dull red, of very fine flavor. 

Sur passe Merveille (F). — A French seedling of the Merveille de 
Quatre Saisons. Offered in France in 1862. 

Surprise (F). — A chance seedling of the Franconia, which orig- 
inated in Montgomery county, N. Y. 

Surprise (H). — Introduced by H. G. Breese, Hoosick, N. Y. 

Surprise d'Automne (F). — A white variety of Rubus Idceus, intro- 
duced by L. Ritz, of Ohio, about 1869. 

Sweet Yellow Antwerp (F). — Mentioned by Downing. 

Syracuse. — An accidental seedling, springing up in a garden at 
Syracuse, N. Y. Introduced by Green's Nursery Company, Roches- 



200 Bush-Fruits 

ter, N. Y. Bushes medium in vigor, not fully hardy, with large, 
rugose foliage; susceptible to anthracnose. Berries very large, light 
red, not very firm, sweet, good, late. 

Talbot (F).— Originated about 1885 with J. W. Talbot, of Nor- 
wood, Mass., who had been growing Herstine and Fontenay. 

Talcott. — Sent out for trial by G. H. & J. H. Hale of Connecticut, 
in 1883. Much like Turner except in form. 

Tall Bed Cane. — Described by William Prince, about 1832, as 
productive. Canes covered at the base and extremities with numer- 
ous fine spines or hairs. 

Taylor Paragon (F). — Mentioned by Fuller as discarded. 

Thompson Early Pride. — Sent out in 1888 by the Cleveland 
Nursery Co. 

Thompson Early Prolific. — Also sent out by the Cleveland Nur- 
sery Co. 

Thunderer (F). — Mentioned by Thomas, resembling Franconia. 

Thwack. — Introduced by T. W. Foster, of Louisiana, Mo., as 
obtained from T. S. Wilson, of New York, who claimed it to be a 
cross between Herstine and Brandywine. Attained some prominence 
as a market berry. 

Trusty. — A variety of unknown origin, on trial in Canada. 

Turkish Turban (F). — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1842: 
368. 

Turner (Southern Thornless, Red Thornless, Southern Red, 
Baldwin's Choice, Balding's Choice). — Originated by Prof. J. B. 
Turner, of Jacksonville, 111. A full account of its origin is given 
in E. P. Roe's "Success with Small Fruits." Long one of the most 
popular varieties, and still grown. Very hardy, vigorous; canes 
golden reddish-brown, overspread with a purple bloom. Almost 
free from spines. Fruit large, bright crimson, roundish conical, soft, 
sweet, and of excellent flavor. The distribution of plants by a man 
named Baldwin undoubtedly caused it to receive the name Bald- 
win's Choice, evidently corrupted to Balding's Choice. 

Twentieth Century. — Said to be a seedling found in a garden near 
Marlboro, Ulster County, N. Y. Plants were secured by L. L. Wood- 
ford, Syracuse, N. Y., in 1905, who four years later named it Twen- 
tieth Century. Plants medium in vigor, usually showing some 



Varieties of Red and Hybrid Raspberries 201 

winter injury, productive. Foliage large, dark green, crumpled. 
Fruit late, large,, bright red, somewhat soft, sprightly, good. 

Vermont (F). — A seedling of the Champlain. Originated by L. M. 
Macomber, of North Ferrisburgh, Vermont. 

Victoria (Rogers' Victoria, Victor) (F).— Imported by William R. 
Prince. 

Virginia Red. — A variety mentioned by Prince in the Pomo- 
logical Manual, published in 1832. 

Walker (F). — One of Dr. Brinckle's seedlings. 

Watson. — Midseason. 

Wauregan. — Mentioned in "Rural Affairs," vol. 8, p. 81. 

Waterloo. — Mentioned among the varieties planted for trial at 
the Mississippi Agricultural College in 1888. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 
111:318. 

Welch. — Described as vigorous, hardy and productive. Fruit 
large, bright crimson, melting and so sweet and rich that it has been 
known as the Honey raspberry. 

Welsh. — A seedling raised by Isaac Welsh, of Camden county, 
N.J. 

Wetherbee (H). — A variety from New York, with small, round, 
purple fruit. 

White Canada. — Raised by Charles Arnold, of Paris, Ontario. 
Canes brownish yellow; spines white. Pale yellow, of decided Ant- 
werp flavor. 

White-fruited. — A white-fruited form of Rubus strigosus, sent to 
the Cornell University Experiment Station, by A. S. Fuller. 

White Mountain (Red). — Tender, late, unproductive. — Mass. 
Hatch Exp. Sta. Bull. 21 : 10. 

Williams Preserving (F). — An old English variety. 

Wilmot Early Red (F). — Mentioned by Fuller as an old English 
variety. 

Winant. — A seedling raised in New Jersey. Introduced by Frank 
Ford & Son, of Ravenna, Ohio. Said to resemble Thwack. 

Woodward (F). — One of Dr. Brinckle's seedlings. 

Woodward Red Globe (F). — Fuller speaks of this as an old Eng- 
lish variety cultivated in England about forty years' previous. 

Worthy. — Introduced by J. H. Hale. Hardy, early, productive. 



202 Bush-Fruits 

Yellow Antwerp (White Antwerp, Double-bearing Yellow) (F). — 
Canes and fruit yellow. A variety long known. 

Yellow Chili (Chili Monthly) (F). — A French variety mentioned 
by Fuller, having little value. 

Recommended varieties. — Cuthbert is still far in the lead 
as a market red raspberry, being widely grown the coun- 
try over. Marlboro is popular along Lake Erie and Her- 
bert in the Hudson River Valley, while Loudon is still 
grown for market in some localities. Ranere has been 
gaining ground rapidly in recent years, especially in New 
Jersey. Sunbeam and Ohta are especially adapted to the 
trying climate of the northern prairie states. June is 
promising as a very early variety in New York. 

Columbian is now the leading variety in the hybrid 
group. Royal Purple is a newer claimant for public favor 
in this class. 



CHAPTER VIII 

VARIETIES OF BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES 

Blackberries and dewberries are recent in cultivation. 
In many parts of the country they are still to be found 
wild in such abundance that there is little incentive to 
grow them. Having been developed from native species, 
the number of varieties is not so great as with the rasp- 
berries. There has been some falling off in the area de- 
voted to these fruits in recent years in the eastern states 
as shown by census statistics, but on the Pacific coast 
their cultivation has increased. This is apparently due 
to the introduction of the loganberry and its popularity. 
While typically distinct, the dividing line between black- 
berries and dewberries is not well defined, many inter- 
mediate forms occurring which pass in easy grades from 
one to the other. 

THE BLACKBERRIES 

The blackberry family is exceedingly variable. Within 
the limits of species properly called blackberries and 
dewberries may be found an almost endless variety of 
forms. Little wonder that it has offered a fertile field 
for the species-maker. With specimens at hand he 
may name and describe form after form to his heart's 
content. But when he comes to visit them in their na- 

203 



204 Bush-Fruits 

tive haunts, rather than in the herbarium, he is likely 
to find them mingling and intermingling, varying and 
shading, even crossing and recrossing, in the greatest 
freedom and abandon, in utter disregard for his carefully 
defined types. 

The cultivated American blackberry is a product of 
this intermingling of types. So confused is its origin 
that to attempt to classify varieties with reference to the 
particular species from which they have sprung is well- 
nigh impossible, and certainly not worth the while. Even 
to separate the blackberries from the dewberries is not 
easy, for they too intermingle to a greater or less extent, 
passing in easy grades from one to the other. Probably 
the foundation species for the greater number of varieties 
is the one now known as Rubus argutus, Link. This is a 
rather stiff, erect form with very prickly or thorny canes, 
the thorns extending to the stems and ribs of the leaves; 
flower-clusters short, usually free from glands. Found 
from Canada to North Carolina and Iowa. Rubus flor- 
idus, Tratt., is a taller-growing plant, with decumbent or 
recurving branches and stout curved prickles. The 
flower-clusters are loose and leafy, bearing only a few 
flowers, the fruit being long, with small drupelets. This 
form occurs from Virginia southward and westward. 
Rubus frondosus, Bigel., is of medium height with mostly 
straight prickles; the leaflets are broad and hairy beneath, 
the flower-clusters short, hairy, with only a few simple 
leaves or bracts intermingled. Rubus allegheniensis, 
Porter, is a mountain form of medium height, with moder- 
ately curved prickles, leaflets glandular-pubescent be- 
neath, flower-clusters long, glandular-hairy but not 



The Blackberries 205 

leafy. Fruit usually long, thimble-shaped, rather small, 
narrowing toward the tip: drupelets small and numerous. 
Another mountain form common in the Allegheny region 
is Rubus canadensis, Linn. (R. Millspaughii, Brit.) This 
is a tall nearly thornless species bearing short thick berries, 
jet black in color but more sour than the lowland types. 
This species appears not to have been brought into cul- 
tivation. 

The blackberry of the garden is little more than a child 
of the brush-land and forest, forced into domestication, 
and all of the above wild types, with the exception of the 
last mentioned, appear to have contributed to different 
varieties now under cultivation. That the smooth moun- 
tain berry is not also included is doubtless the result 
of accident rather than purpose. It is a productive type 
in its wild state; its glossy black fruit is attractive and 
often large, while its comparative freedom from thorns 
is a point in its favor. These qualities offer something of 
promise to be combined with the higher quality of fruit 
found among other types. In its wild state this mountain 
berry ripens later than other blackberries, partly due to 
elevation at least. It reaches its greatest perfection in the 
high mountains of the Appalachian system. It is often 
found in dense forests, where the canes sometimes reach 
a height of fifteen or eighteen feet, and are as thornless 
and smooth as a willow twig. In such localities the fruit 
is said to be greatly appreciated by the mountain bears, 
which are enabled to draw down the smooth canes and 
fatten upon the berries for their long hibernating sleep 
during winter. 

The sand blackberry, Rubus cuneifolius, Pursh, found 



206 Bush-Fruits 

in the southern states, was formerly thought to have been 
the parent of at least one cultivated variety, but Bailey 
now believes that the species has not entered into the 
development of the garden berry. This is a short, stiff 
plant covered with strong hooked thorns, with leaves 
which are woolly white beneath. 

History and Future of the Blackberry 

The blackberry or bramble of Europe appears to have 
been little prized as a fruit-bearing plant. It is occasion- 
ally mentioned as useful for tarts or similar articles of diet, 
especially if apples are added to give spice and flavor. 
The fruit is evidently inferior in flavor and quality to that 
of our own species. It is doubtless chiefly due to this fact 
that the blackberry of cultivation has been developed from 
American types. 

The following account of blackberry history is quoted 
from an article at one time contributed by the writer to 
"The American Garden." 

In its early history, other qualities seem to have been considered 
more important than its fruit. According to Pliny, the ancients were 
taught by means of the bramble bush how to propagate trees by 
layers. It was, no doubt, held in greatest esteem, however, for its 
supposed medicinal qualities. "The berries," says Pliny, "are the 
food of man, and have a dessicative and astringent virtue, and serve 
as a most appropriate remedy for the gums and inflammation of 
the tonsils." Both the flowers and berries were thought by the 
ancients to be remedies against even the most venomous serpents. 
Pliny further states that "the juice pressed out of young shoots, and 
reduced to the consistency of honey, by standing in the sun, is a 
singular medicine taken inwardly, or applied outwardly, for all 



History and Future of the Blackberry 207 

diseases of the mouth and eyes, as well as for the quinsy." The roots, 
boiled in wine, were esteemed one of the best astringents by Roman 
physicians, and used in all diseases of the mouth. The leaves, 
pounded and applied to ringworms and ulcers, were said to bring 
speedy relief. Boerhave, a renowned physician at the beginning of 
the last century, affirms that the roots, dug in February or March 
and boiled with honey, are an excellent remedy against dropsy. 
In a work entitled "A Niewe Herball, or Historie of Plantes," first 
written by D. Rembert Dodoen, physician to the German emperor, 
and afterward translated into French, then from French into English 
by Gerard Dewes, in 1578, the "nature" of the blackberry is set 
forth as follows: "The tender springes and new leaves of the Bramble 
are colde and drie almost in the thirde degree, and astringent or 
binding, and so is the unripe fruite. The ripe fruite is somewhat 
warme and astringent, but not so much as the unrype fruite." Then 
are given a long list of "vertues," among which are the following: 
"They do also fasten the teeth, when the mouth is washed with the 
juyce or decoction thereof. The unripe fruite is good for the same 
purpose, to be used after the same manner." "The leaves be 
stamped & with good effect are applyed to the region or place of 
the stomacke against the trembling of the hart, the payne & loose- 
ness or ache of the stomacke." It is to be feared that Pliny and 
others of these old writers do not rank high as medical authorities 
at the present day, yet the plant and fruit of the blackberry are still 
employed in various ways, with very gratifying results, in the treat- 
ment of disease. 

According to legend, the origin of the disagreeably thorny char- 
acter of the blackberry, as told by Waterton, was on this fashion: 
"The Cormorant was once a wool merchant. He entered into part- 
nership with the Bramble and the Bat, and they freighted a large 
ship with wool; she was wrecked and the firm became bankrupt. 
Since that disaster the Bat skulks about till midnight to avoid his 
creditors, the Cormorant is forever diving into the deep to dis- 
cover its foundered vessel, while the Bramble seizes hold of every 
passing sheep to make up its loss by stealing the wool." 

Perhaps it would be casting discredit on the worthy ancestors 
who braved so many dangers in the settlement of our country, to 



208 Bush-Fruits 

charge them with undue conservatism, yet it can hardly be doubted 
that men who would brave the uncertainties, not to say terrors, of 
an ocean voyage on an almost unknown sea, and the settlement of 
a new country peopled with savages of unknown traits and ten- 
dencies, rather than surrender ideas which they cherished, would 
not be quick to form new ones. Hence we can readily conclude 
that the blackberry of America was to them much what the black- 
berry of England had been — simply a wild bramble, to be destroyed 
when possible and replaced by something better, and whose fruit was 
to be gathered at will. Moreover, to cultivate a fruit which was so 
readily obtained in abundance for the gathering, would have been 
folly to them, when many other things conducive to their safety 
and comfort were so much more needed. As time went on, however, 
this gratuitous feast of nature, provided for the fostering of "infant 
industries," began to diminish, and the demand of growing cities 
for increased quantities of fruit doubtless led to the idea of cultivat- 
ing the blackberry among the rest. Just when this state of affairs 
was reached it is impossible to say, but evidently not until quite late 
in our national development, for the blackberry does not seem to 
have begun to receive much notice or to be tallied about in the 
horticultural journals until about 1850. From " Hovey's Magazine 
of Horticulture," it appears that Capt. Josiah Lovett, of Beverly, 
Mass., figured prominently in introducing it to cultivation. Even 
then, as with many other good and useful things, first impressions 
were unfavorable. Of course, the first effort would naturally be to 
bring plants, which bore the most promising fruit, from the woods and 
clearings and set them in the garden. This attempt to tame the wild 
protege of the forest did not often prove satisfactory. These plants 
evidently did not take kindly to the refinements of civilization, and 
longed for their free and easy life of the wood. Capt. Lovett reports 
repeated failures in trying to get good berries by this method. He 
persevered for five years, but at last gave up in despair about 1840, 
and surrendered this wild gypsy of the fruits to its native haunts 
as untamable. In spite of these discouraging results he evidently 
did not abandon the dream of a cultivated blackberry, for Downing 
gives him the credit of having introduced the Dorchester, which in 
time proved so valuable, although according to Marshall P. Wilder, 



The Dewberries 209 

as reported in the "Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural 
Society" for 1883, p. 129, it was brought to notice by Eliphalet 
Thayer, who first exhibited it before that society, August 7, 1841. 

But these first introductions to cultivation, the Dorchester and 
Lawton, were not calculated to bring swift and lasting popularity 
to the blackberry as a garden fruit, for although large and attrac- 
tive, their habit of turning black before they are ripe nearly always 
led to their being gathered and eaten while green, and their conse- 
quent condemnation as sour and poor in quality. Moreover, their 
culture, being little understood, led to frequent failures and unsatis- 
factory results, while their propensity to persist and spread, aided 
by their unmerciful thorns, conspired to render them a terror to 
many timid gardeners. In spite of all this, the blackberry has 
steadily pushed its way into prominence, until it is to-day one of 
our most satisfactory and profitable crops. Here, as with all other 
fruits, we are far from attaining perfection. We have no ideal variety. 
If we demand the best in point of hardiness, we must yield in size 
and quality; if delicacy of flavor is the desideratum, something else 
will be deficient. Yet to stand by a well-grown row of Early Cluster, 
for example, to see its glistening sprays of glossy black hanging in 
such graceful profusion, to gather its magnificent berries and to test 
their sweet and melting quality, just like those finest and ripest ones 
we used now and then to chance upon in some wooded nook which 
everybody else had missed, is to forget for the time being that any- 
thing further is to be desired in a blackberry. Still we have reason 
to hope that the achievements of this energetic and vigorous pomo- 
logical youth are but an omen of what is yet to come. 



THE DEWBERRIES 

The dewberries are distinguished from the blackberries 
chiefly by their trailing habit of growth, their early ripen- 
ing, the character of the flower-cluster, and the method of 
propagation. The true dewberries bear but few flowers 
in each cluster, the clusters are cymose, the center flower 



210 Bush-Fruits 

opening first, and the flowers are few and scattered, gen- 
erally borne on long and ascending pedicels, or stems, 
which tend to raise both flowers and fruit well toward the 
end of the shoot. In the blackberries the opposite of these 
characters is found. The clusters are corymbose or race- 
mose, the outer flowers generally opening first, and the 
flowers are borne in rather dense clusters, the pedicels 
being shorter, as a rule, and standing more nearly at right 
angles to the main stem of the cluster. The dewberries 
propagate by means of tips, while the blackberries propa- 
gate by suckers, a point of much practical importance, in 
cultivation. Even this important point of distinction 
is not absolute. The common varieties of blackberries 
will occasionally root at the tips, as I have personally 
seen. Despite these characters, forms are found, both 
wild and in cultivation, so intermediate in character as to 
make them very difficult to classify. These intermediate 
forms are of special interest, and illustrate in a remark- 
able way the possibilities of admixture in the genus. 
Many of them are very productive, in apparent de- 
fiance of the pronouncements of science, which are that 
hybrids should be deficient in fruitfulness. 

The most important type in cultivation is that repre- 
sented by the northern dewberry. In this group four 
species are now recognized by Bailey (Cyclopedia of 
Horticulture). First is the one long known as Rubus 
canadensis, later thought to be the R. villosus of Aiton 
but now given the name R. procumbens, Muhl. This is the 
prevailing type of the northeastern states, except along 
the coast, reaching southward to Virginia. It is a running 
plant with canes usually bearing stout, recurved prickles, 



The Dewberries 211 

the leaflets narrowed at the base and nearly or quite 
glabrous, the flowers being borne in the upper axils. 

Rubus invisus, Brit., occurs in the same region as the 
above species, but its canes are less prickly, strong, terete 
and somewhat ascending, often making mounds of growth; 
the leaflets are large and the inflorescence dichotomous. 
R. Baileyanus, Brit., is more slender, not much prickly, 
with leaflets that are mostly broad at the base and pubes- 
cent beneath, the leaves or bracts in the flower-clusters 
being simple. This is the form described by Torrey and 
Gray as R. villosus var. humifusus. R. Enslenii, Tratt, 
occurs from Nantucket and Long Island southward on the 
Coastal Plain. This is a soft-caned, weak plant, bearing 
small, loose berries and has probably not entered into the 
make-up of the cultivated varieties. 

The southern dewberry, R. trivialis, Michx., Fig. 24, is a 
variable type, chiefly distinguished from the northern 
forms by having the long, prostrate canes armed with 
stout prickles, which are sometimes dark purple in color; 
reddish bristles also occur at times. The leaves are firm, 
smooth, and practically evergreen, usually bearing stout 
prickles on the petioles and midribs. The flowers are usu- 
ally borne on simple, more or less prickly peduncles. The 
fruit is sometimes excellent but often dry and seedy. This 
is the common dewberry of the southern states, ranging 
from Virginia to Florida and Texas, often becoming a pest 
in old fields. 

The California dewberry, R. vitifolius, Cham. & 
Schlecht., Fig. 25, is the western representative of the wild 
dewberry family. It is a variable and perplexing species. 
The canes are long and trailing, or sometimes partially 




Fig. 24. Rubus trivialis OQh). 



The Dewberries 



213 




Fig. 25. Rubus vitifolius ( X 2 / 3 )* 

erect, with slender prickles. Leaves partially evergreen, 
leaflets broad, coarsely toothed, light green and pubescent 
above and beneath, other parts being more or less densely 
covered with straight bristles and glandular-tipped hairs. 
The fruit is black, oblong, sweet, with pubescent drupelets. 



214 Bush-Fruits 

Some forms are perfect flowered; in others the bloom is 
staminate with abortive pistils and still others are pistil- 
late, with only rudimentary stamens. 

Just how far this wild type has entered into the cul- 
tivated berries of the Pacific Slope seems to be unde- 
termined. Two or three varieties known to belong to it 
have been introduced but have not become prominent. 
The Loganberry, Mammoth, and Phenomenal have been 
supposed to have sprung from this species through hy- 
bridization, but their botanical origin is still a matter of 
doubt, some botanists believing that they represent a 
distinct species not yet well known in the wild state. 

The position of the dewberry as a cultivated fruit is 
discussed elsewhere and need not be here considered. Ex- 
clusive of the loganberry and other Pacific Coast types 
it has not attained a prominent place in American pomol- 
ogy. 

CULTIVATED VARIETIES OF BLACKBERRIES AND 
DEWBERRIES 

The following list includes the names of blackberries 
and dewberries known to have been introduced into cul- 
tivation in the United States. Those more properly known 
as dewberries are followed by the letter (D). Those 
known to be of the hybrid blackberry-dewberry type by 
the letter (H). To draw sharp dividing lines is difficult 
and no exact classification is attempted. 

Adair Claret. — Originated with D. S. Adair, Hawesville, Ky. 
Plant not quite hardy. Fruit medium size, claret color, soft, with 
a mild, pleasant flavor. — Downing. 



Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 215 

Agawam. — Found growing wild in a pasture about 1865 or 1870, 
by John Perkins, of Ipswich, Mass. Plant hardy, vigorous, and 
productive. Fruit oblong, of medium size, large, black, sweet, and 
melting. A popular variety. 

Albion. — Found and introduced by John B. Orange, of Albion, 111. 
Fruit large, oblong, clear pink, sweet and good. 

Alger. — Originated at Cleveland, Ohio. Of good size, oblong in 
form. Of a deep claret color; sweet and rich. 

Allen. — Sent out for trial about 1894, by W. B. K. Johnson, Allen- 
town, Pa. Said to be early and productive. Fruit glossy, jet black, 
not fading; flesh firm, but juicy; quality good. 

Ambrosia. — Offered by A. L. and H. J. Bradley, of Makanda, 111., 
as an extra-early variety, said to begin ripening with the red 
raspberries. Claimed to be exceptionally hardy, productive. Fruit 
large, jet black, not turning red when picked, firm and of high 
quality. 

Americus. — Received at the office of the United States Pomolo- 
gist in 1894, from J. H. Langille, Kensington, Md., and described 
in the report for that year. Thought to be a seedling of the Early 
Harvest. Stout, with flowers in rather short, erect, downy spikes. 
Fruit irregular, jet black, moderately firm, melting, juicy and of 
good quality, ripening soon after Early Harvest. 

Ancient Briton. — The origin of this variety has been greatly in' 
doubt. According to one report it was named by Robert Hassell, 
of Alderly, Wisconsin, who received it from England. Another report 
credits it with being a Wisconsin seedling, found by one A. H. Briton, 
for whom it was named, the name later becoming changed to Ancient 
Briton. The plant belongs to an American species and has proved 
one of the most valuable sorts grown in Wisconsin, being the favorite 
at the famous Thayer Fruit-Farm at Sparta. Plants sturdy, hardy 
and productive. Fruit long, melting, of fine flavor. One of the best 
varieties where it succeeds. 

Aughinbaugh (D). — One of the best known varieties of the Western 
dewberry, of especial interest as being the supposed parent of the 
Loganberry. It was propagated and sold by a man named Aughin- 
baugh, about 1875. The blossoms are pistillate, hence it should be 
planted with other varieties to furnish pollen. The fruit is said to 



216 Bush-Fruits 

be of excellent quality, but the plant is a weak grower and unpro- 
ductive. 

Bagnard. — Said to be as hardy as Snyder and far superior in qual- 
ity. Considered one of the best by S. D. Willard of Geneva, N. Y., 
at one time. 

Bangor. — A variety of Maine origin, first propagated from plants 
growing on the farm of Henry W. Brown, in Newbury. 

Banlon (Seedling). — A variety, said to be from Vermont, which 
proved very hardy in Minnesota. — Minn. Hort. Soc. Rept., 1874 : 57. 

Barnard. — Said to be a seedling of the wild blackberries of Belmont 
county, Ohio, taken to Allamakee county, Iowa, and disseminated 
by Mr. Barnard. A popular variety in northern Illinois and Iowa, 
where it has proved very hardy. 

Bartel (D). — This was the first named variety of dewberry. It 
was brought to notice sometime in the 70's by Dr. Bartel, of Huey, 
Clinton county, 111. The plants are said to have appeared in an old 
cornfield on his farm, and the large size of the fruit led him to offer 
them for sale. The fruit is described as large, rich and juicy. 

Bauer (D). — A variety sent out from Bauer's nursery, Judsonia, 
Ark. Said to be vigorous, with fine fruit, but unproductive. Prob- 
ably R. trivialis. 

Black Chief. — On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station. 
Received from J. H. Haynes, Delphi, Ind. 

Black Diamond (D) (Star, Wonder, Ewing's Wonder, Atlantic). — 
Said to have originated with George H. Liepe, from seed of the old 
Evergreen. Similar to the Himalaya in habit of growth, trailing 
the first year but more upright later, the canes living from year to 
year at the base; propagating by tips. Leaves green till late in 
autumn, free from rust. Fruit jet black, firm, about the size of 
Snyder, ripening very late, said to be borne in clusters something 
like grapes. 

Blowers. — Said to have been found by a woman in the Chautauqua 
Grape Belt of New York. Plant upright, hardy except in the extreme 
north. Rust-resistant and exceedingly productive. Begins ripen- 
ing in July and continues for a long time. Fruit large, jet black, a 
good shipper and of fine quality. 

Bonanza. — Said to be similar to Kittatinny, but hardier. 



Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 217 

Boston High-Bush. — Mentioned. Rept. Calif. Hort. Soc. 1886, 
p. 234. Dorchester may be meant. 

Brandenburg. — -Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p. 286. 

Brunton Early. — An early variety which originated in Illinois. 
Similar to Early Harvest in habit of growth. Apparently deficient 
in pollen production, or self-sterile, and unproductive when planted 
alone. Of little value. 

Cape May. — "Fruit large, black, sweet." — Downing. 

Carlo. — Grown at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station. 
Unpromising. 

Cherry Valley. — Originated near Cherry Valley, 111. — 111. Hort. Soc. 
Rept. 1882 : 284. 

Clark— Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker for 1897, p. 598, 
as received from Matthew Crawford the spring previous. 

Colonel Wilder. — Introduced by John B. Orange, and named in 
honor of Marshall P. Wilder. Of a bright cream color, large size, 
oblong, almost pointed, of superior flavor and quality. Mr. Orange 
regarded this as the most valuable of his white varieties. — Hov. 
Mag. 1864 : 360. 

Crystal White (Orange's Crystal). — Originated and introduced 
by John B. Orange. Upright, with strong, green spines, lacking in 
hardiness, and suckering freely. Fruit large, roundish oval, clear, 
rich white when fully ripe, sweet, of good flavor and ripening early. 

Cumberland. — Formerly known about Bridgeton, N. J. — Fuller. 

Cutter Mulberry. — Introduced by G. B. Cutter, Newton, Mass., 
about 1859. Fruit long, slender, sweet.— Hov. Mag. 1859 : 397. 

Dallas. — A Texas variety, found hardy, vigorous, productive and 
reliable there, but of little value in the North. 

Dehring. — An early variety, about equal to Brunton in hardiness 
and productiveness; fruit small. 

Doctor Warder. — Originated and introduced by John B. Orange. 
Color dark ruddy red, quality good. 

Dodge Thornless. — Mentioned. Agr. of Mass., 1868-9, p. 72. 

Dorchester (Improved High Bush). — A seedling introduced by 
Eliphalet Thayer, of Dorchester, Mass., who first exhibited it before 
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, August 7, 1841. It was 
largely brought to public notice by Capt. Josiah Lovett, of Beverly, 



218 Bush-Fruits 

Mass. Capt. Lovett had previously made unsuccessful attempts to 
transplant the best of the wild bushes to his garden, but after obtain- 
ing this variety, turned his best attention to it. Samuel Downer, of 
Dorchester, Mass., also seems to have been connected with its in- 
troduction. This variety is of special interest as being the advance 
guard of all the blackberries now in cultivation, since it was the first 
cultivated variety. It is a very upright grower, vigorous, and vi- 
ciously thorny. Fruit large, oblong, conic, deep, shining black, 
nearly as large as Lawton, longer, with rather smaller drupelets. 

Duncan Falls. — Introduced by J. C. Neff, Duncan's Falls, Ohio. 
Upright, vigorous; fruit large, black. — Downing. 

Early Cluster. — The original plant of this variety was dis- 
covered about 1872, among Missouri Mammoth, on the farm of 
Charles W. Starn, in Southern New Jersey, where it attracted at- 
tention from its early and profuse bearing, and was transplanted 
and propagated for market. It is a moderate, erect, healthy grower, 
hardy and extremely productive. The fruit is medium sized, short- 
oblong, shining black, sweet and of fine quality, without hard or 
bitter core. The entire crop ripens within a few days, making it a 
desirable early market berry. Yet the variety never became popular. 
Either spurious stock was sent out or it thrives only in special 
localities. I have never seen a more satisfactory blackberry, nor 
tasted one of finer quality, than the Early Cluster as I have known it. 

Early Harvest. — An early variety, found growing wild in Illinois. 
Moderately vigorous, upright, often tender. Canes greenish, with 
comparatively few thorns. Fruit small, roundish to oblong, greenish 
black, soft, juicy, mild and pleasant. Very early. 

Egypt— Mentioned. Proc. N. J. Hort. Soc. 1900 : 192. 

Eldorado. — Originated as an accidental seedling in Preble Co., 
Ohio, near a village of that name, and first placed under cultivation 
about 1882. Hardy and free from attacks of orange rust. Fruit 
large, glossy black, holding its color well, juicy and of excellent 
flavor. A popular variety both for the home-garden and for market 
in many localities. 

Colossal (D).— A sort offered by L. L. May & Co., St. Paul, Minn. 

Erie (Uncle Tom). — Found on lands of L. B. Pierce, of Tallmage, 
Ohio, in 1876. Probably a seedling of the Lawton. The variety was 



Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 219 

sold to Matthew Crawford, in 1S84, he in turn selling it to J. T. 
Lovett, who offered it for sale in 1S86. Mr. Lovett first announced 
it under the name of Uncle Tom, but later the name Erie was sub- 
stituted, which is the only one under which it was offered for sale. 
A strong, spreading grower, very thorny, productive, but lacking 
in hardiness in some regions. Season intermediate. Fruit large, 
roundish oval, of good quality. 

Eureka (H). — In 1876 William Parry selected the best and most 
perfect berries of Wilson's Early, grown by the side of Dorchester, 
planted them, grew the seedlings together for four years, then se- 
lected the best, which was named Eureka, the others being de- 
stroyed.— Mich. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1886 : 407. 

Excelsior. — Productive, of fair quality, good size, season medium; 
lacks hardiness. — Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta. Bull. 6 : 4. 

Fairfax (D).— Sent out by C. A. TJber, of Fairfax county, Virginia, 
who found it wild on a stony, unproductive hillside in that county. 

Farley. — Origin unknown. Fruit nearly as large as New Rochelle, 
sweet, and earlier. — Horticulturist. 

Felton. — Introduced by Oscar Felton, Camden, N. J. Rather 
spreading; fruit large, long, sweet and good. — Fuller. 

Ford A T o. 1. — On trial at the Geneva (X. Y.) Experiment 
Station. 

Freed. — A variety originated about 1871 by George Freed, of 
Columbiana Co., Ohio. Rank and hardy, but a shy bearer. 

French Lawton. — A selected and improved strain of the Lawton 
offered by W. N. Scarff of Ohio. 

Fruitland. — A variety from Ohio. Canes strong, upright, grooved, 
with greenish red bark. Fruit medium, nearly round, with medium 
large grains, sweet, good. 

Gainor. — Large and productive, but not hardy enough at Ottawa, 
Canada. — Rept. Can. Exp. Farms, 1889 : 95. 

Gardena (D). — Name from Gardena, California. Thought to be 
a seedling of Premo. Very early, being the first to ripen and coming 
on very fast. Large, jet black and firm. Plant healthy, resisting 
frost well. Successful in Southern California. 

Geer (D). — A variety discovered by F. L. Wright, in a wood-lot 
belonging to a Mrs. Geer, of Plainfield, Livingston Co., Michigan. 



220 Bush-Fruits 

It was first brought under cultivation in 1887. Said to be productive, 
though small in fruit. 

General Grant (D). — Introduced by Charles A. Green, of Rochester, 
N. Y., in 1885 or 1886. It came from M. W. Broyles, somewhere in 
Tennessee. It possessed little value. 

Golden Queen (D). — Mentioned as a new dewberry of golden 
yellow color, large and productive. Hort. Gleaner, 1898 : 100. 

Grape. — Mentioned as a variety with strong canes and large fruit. 
Am. Pom. Soc. Rept. 1860 : 76. 

Guadalupe (D). — Found wild by Otto Locke of New Braunfels, 
Texas. Vigorous, productive, early, large, long, sweet and showy. 

Haley. — A dwarf variety, found in Franklin Co., Kansas. Brought 
under cultivation by E. Haley, about 1880. 

Haupt (H). — Thought to be a blackberry-dewberry cross. Very 
thorny. Must be cross-pollinated. Rural New-Yorker, 1914 : 252. 

Hess.— Mentioned. Mich. Expt. Sta. Bull. 206 : 59. 

Himalaya-Berry. — A very rank growing plant, woody at the base 
and partially perennial in mild climates. Successfully grown on the 
Pacific Coast but valueless in the East, where it lacks hardiness, 
blooms late and does not pollinate itself, producing imperfect berries. 

Himinan.— Mentioned. Proc. N. J. Hort. Soc. 1900 : 192. 

Hoag. — Originated many years ago with Charles R. Hoag, one 
of the original members of the Minnesota Horticultural Society, 
who then lived at Kasson, Dodge Co., Minn. The variety was named 
for him by the society. 

Holcomb. — First brought to public notice at one of the weekly 
exhibitions of the Hartford Co. (Conn.) Horticultural Society, in 
the summer of 1855, by E. A. Holcomb, of Granby, Conn. Fruit of 
fine appearance and good flavor, ripening early. 

Honey Coreless. — Offered by Bradley Brothel's of Illinois as pro- 
ductive, hardy and a rampant grower, requiring staking or close 
pruning. Fruit large, jet black, coreless and delicious; ripening with 
Early Harvest. 

Hoosac Thornless. — Found in the Hoosac Mountains of Massa- 
chusetts. Its chief recommendation is the absence of thorns. 
Fruit not large, but said to be productive and of good quality. 

Humboldt (D).— A writer in The Rural New-Yorker for 1896, 



Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 221 

p. 574, mentions this as having been selected from the wild black- 
berry of California, and describes it as a rampant grower and abun- 
dant bearer, ripening with Hansell raspberry, a month before the 
Early Harvest blackberry. Fruit jet black, one and one-half inches 
long by one inch thick, in selected specimens. Flavor "marvelous, 
delightfully spicy, with a wild- wood aroma." 

Iceberg. — Plant said to be strong and productive. Fruit creamy 
white, about the size of Snyder, sweet with few seeds. Blooms im- 
perfect and need to be pollinated with some early blooming sort. 
Said to have been produced by three generations of crossing, Lawton 
being one of its grandparents. 

Idaho (Climbing). — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, in 1868. 
It may have been the cut-leaved blackberry or a western dewberry. 

Johnson. — A variety from Missouri, said to be adapted to the 
South, and popular there. 

Jordan.— Introduced by J. W. Austin, Pilot Point, Texas. Fruit 
large, ripening ten days later than Dallas and Early Harvest. 

Joy. — Originated with Jacob Miehl, in Atlantic County, New 
Jersey. Said to be unusually hardy, productive and ripening about 
midseason. Fruit large, coal black, nearly as thick as long, rich and 
luscious. 

Kenoyer (H). — Said to be a cross between Kittatinny and Early 
Harvest, originating in Kansas. Canes strong, resembling Kittatinny 
in wood and leaf. Fruit large and luscious, ripening about with 
King. Said to do better than other varieties on thin clay soil. Said 
not to be fully self-fertile. 

Kentucky White. — Introduced by D. S. Adair, Hawesville, Ky. 
Plant tender; fruit light dirty white, imperfect. — Downing. 

King (Early King). — Plant rather small, erect, stiff, with several 
small canes from each stool, making a thick clump; spines large. 
Berry of medium size, oval, irregular, of best quality; core soft, 
ripe as soon as black. A week earlier than Snyder. Too soft for 
market. Desirable as a large, early berry. 

Kittatinny. — Found in the town of Hope, N. J., near the base 
of the Kittatinny Mountains, and introduced by E. Williams about 
1865. Plant fairly hardy and productive. Fruit large to very large, 
roundish conical, rich glossy black, moderately firm, juicy, sweet, 



222 Bush-Fruits 

and well flavored, ripening early and continuing long in bearing. 
Very susceptible to attacks of red rust. 

Knox. — Plants strong, upright, about as hardy as Kittatinny; 
fruit large, attractive and of good quality. 

La Grange. — Offered by Bradley Brothers of 111., as a Russian 
product, said to have been brought from that country and fruited 
for some years by Mr. La Grange of Illinois. Reputed to be ex- 
tremely hardy and very productive, possessing more or less ever- 
bearing habits, the first fruit ripening in July and continuing until 
September. Fruit said to be large and free from core. 

Latimer Seedling (D). — Mentioned as on trial at the Geneva 
(N. Y.) Experiment Station. Received from J. W. Latimer, Pleasan- 
ton, Kansas. 

Lawton (New Rochelle, Seacor's Mammoth). — Found by Lewis 
A. Seacor, in New Rochelle, N. Y., and brought to public notice 
largely by William Lawton, of the same place, about 1848. Vig- 
orous, hardy and productive, with strong spines. Fruit very large, 
oval, and intensely black when fully ripe. It is then juicy, soft, 
and sweet, with an excellent flavor, but when gathered too early, 
very sour and insipid. This was the second blackberry introduced 
into cultivation, and it did much to popularize the fruit. 

Leader. — Originated with Daniel S. Kriebel, in Kenakee Co., 
Illinois. Said by him to be large, of the best quality, and very pro- 
ductive, never failing to produce a crop. 

Lincoln. — A wild plant found about two miles from President 
Lincoln's monument, near Springfield, 111. Vigorous, upright, hardy, 
with long spines. Fruit large, glossy, of good quality. 

Loganberry (D).— This berry originated on the grounds of Judge 
J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, California, in 1882, from seed planted 
by him the preceding year. A full account of its origin, as given by 
Judge Logan himself, appears in Bulletin 45 of the Rhode Island 
Experiment Station. It seems that he had for some time been in- 
terested in raspberries and blackberries, and had growing together 
the Texas Early blackberry, the Aughinbaugh dewberry, and an 
old but unknown variety of red raspberry, resembling the Red Ant- 
werp. In August of 1881 he planted seeds of the Aughinbaugh, ex- 
pecting to get a cross between it and the Texas Early. He raised 




Plate VI. The loganberry. — The fruit about one-half natural size; 
loading crates for the car, in Oregon. 



Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 223 

about fifty seedlings. One of these, the Loganberry, was very similar 
in every respect to the parent, but much larger and a stronger grower. 
At the time the seed was sown Judge Logan did not think it possible 
to cross the Aughinbaugh with the raspberry, but the characters 
developed by this seedling led him to think it to be a hybrid between 
them. Judge Logan states that out of thousands of plants grown 
from seeds of this variety, not one has ever shown, so far as he is 
aware, any of the distinct characteristics of either parent, not one 
has gone back to the original type of either the raspberry or the 
Aughinbaugh, though most of them are inferior to the original plant. 
He also states that he has never succeeded in crossing the Loganberry 
with either of its parents, nor with seedling crosses between the 
Aughinbaugh and the Texas blackberry. 

In the characters of the plant, and in the shape and conforma- 
tion of the fruit the variety is essentially like the Aughinbaugh, 
propagating entirely by tips, though by artificial methods they 
may be grown from hard-wood cuttings. The core remains with 
the fruit, like the blackberry, its principal resemblance to the 
raspberry being in color and flavor, although the dewberry dom- 
inates in flavor. Judge Logan says: "As to the fact of the plant 
being a hybrid between the blackberry and the raspberry, of course 
there is no absolute proof. The color, with the distinct raspberry 
flavor of the fruit, and the circumstances under which it originated, 
I think render the fact of such a cross almost certain." The fruit 
of the loganberry is illustrated in Plate VI. 

The other plants in this lot of seedlings Judge Logan thinks to 
have been crosses between the Aughinbaugh and the Texas, as he 
expected, though they resemble the Aughinbaugh in most of their 
characteristics. 

The hybrid origin of the loganberry has always been open to 
question, as recognized by Judge Logan himself. Recent observa- 
tions reported in "The Journal of Heredity" for November, 1916, 
indicate that the type is not the result of a cross as has been com- 
monly supposed. W. O. Backhouse, Economic Botanist to the 
Argentine Government, reports many seedlings grown by himself 
and others which do not behave as seedlings of hybrids may be 
expected to behave. This is in harmony with Judge Logan's ex- 



224 Bush-Fruits 

perience. Such seedlings appear to be remarkably constant, 
while hybrids between the loganberry and other species of Rubus 
show the characteristics common among hybrids of well-defined 
species. 

In the same article, C. I. Lewis of the Oregon Experiment Station 
is quoted as saying that wild plants of the loganberry type are oc- 
casionally found in Oregon, California and Washington. It is said 
to be so common on Vancouver Island that a nurseryman located 
there reports being in the habit of going to the woods and digging 
wild plants to fill orders whenever his stock became depleted. These 
observations indicate that the plant represents a specific type of 
dewberry and that the plant which appeared on Judge Logan's 
grounds may have come from some other source than the seed which 
he sowed. Bailey, who has been over the subject from the point of 
view of botanical characteristics, states in the "Standard Cyclopedia 
of Horticulture," 1916, that it is "said to be a hybrid," "but the 
botanical origin of it is by no means clear." 

The loganberry has now become a prominent fruit in parts of 
California and the Pacific Northwest, but does not succeed in the 
East. It is so easily excited into growth and blooms so early that 
it is nearly always injured by winter-killing or by spring frosts in 
the eastern states. (See Plates V and VI.) 

Lovett. — Described as hardy, vigorous and productive. Fruit 
large, mostly globular, drupes large, quite firm, though juicy. 

Lucretia (D). — Probably the best known of all the dewberries. 
Found by a soldier in the Civil War, who, being stationed near 
Beverly, W. Va., during most of his service, returned there after 
the war in search of a wife, and acquired this dewberry as a 
perquisite to the plantation owned by her. He transplanted some 
to his garden, and later sent plants to his father in Ohio. These fell 
into the hands of B. F. Albaugh, of Covington, Ohio, who named 
the variety and introduced it to the trade. As sent out, the 
variety was greatly mixed, but the true type is a large fruit, pro- 
ductive, of good quality, and gives satisfaction wherever the dew- 
berry succeeds. 

Lucretia' s Sister (D). — Introduced by J. B. Treedway, of Brandt, 
Ohio, about 1886. Seems to possess little value. 



Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 225 

Luther. — Sent out by R. D. Luther, Fredonia, N. Y. Said to be 
vigorous, hardy and promising. 

Mammoth. — This is one of the seedlings grown by Judge J. H. Logan, 
and thought by him to be a cross between the western dewberry, 
Rubus vitifolius, and the Texas blackberry. It appears to be similar 
to the loganberry in type and habit of growth, propagating by tips 
like other dewberries. Apparently it is similar to the loganberry 
except in color. The berries are black, very large, often reaching 
two inches or more in length and very sour. It is not hardy in the 
eastern states but is grown extensively in the Pacific Northwest. 
The canes are peculiar, being covered with small, short spines. They 
start very early in the season, growing thick and stout until about 
five feet high, then begin to trail, growing 25 to 30 feet in the season, 
rooting at the tips in autumn. The leaves are partially evergreen 
in California. 

Mammoth (D). — Two varieties of the eastern dewberry appear to 
have been sold under this name. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta. Bull. 
34 : 306. 

Mammoth (Thompson's Early Mammoth) (H). — Said to be like 
Wilson in size and general habit of growth, but a few days earlier. 

Manatee (D). — Introduced by Reasoner Brothers, Oneco, Fla., in 
1889, as a selected strain of Rubus trivialis. Productive in that state, 
ripening its fruit in April, and being a good shipper. Also said to 
succeed in California. 

Mason Mountain. — Introduced by R. O. Thompson, of Nebraska, 
about 1865. Fruit large, resembling Lawton. 

Maxwell. — Introduced by A. C. Maxwell, Chanute, Kansas. 
Described as large, sweet, rich and melting. Lacks vigor, hardiness 
and productiveness in some localities. 

Mayes (Mayes Hybrid, Austin's Improved) (D). — Found growing 
wild in Texas, on the farm of John Mayes, some time about 1880. 
Mr. Mayes began cultivating the variety, and found it to improve 
under cultivation. Later it was sent out by J. W. Austin, of Pilot 
Point, Texas, as Austin's Improved. The plant is trailing in habit 
when young, but is said to become stronger and somewhat upright 
with age. It propagates by tips or root-cuttings. The fruit is very 
large, of fine appearance, and the plants are prolific. 



226 Bush-Fruits 

Maynard (H). — A variety found growing on the farm of C. C. May- 
nard, at Kincaid, Kans., between the Lucretia dewberry and the 
Early Harvest blackberry, and sent out for trial by him as the 
Maynard dewberry. Berry round, composed of a few very large, 
jet black drupelets, ripening with the blackberries; many berries 
in a cluster. 

McCracken. — Found in an Illinois wood by Mr. McCracken. 

McDonald (H). — A variety of the hybrid type, trailing the first year 
but sending up stronger canes afterward. Prized for its earliness, 
ripening with the dewberries, ahead of Early Harvest. Fruit of good 
quality, resembling the dewberry and somewhat larger than Early 
Harvest. Should be planted with some other variety to insure 
pollination. Mayes dewberry is recommended for this purpose. 

Mersereau. — Originated with J. M. Mersereau, Cayuga, N. Y. 
Plant vigorous, upright, resistant to disease and very hardy. Fruit 
large, brilliant black, retaining their color well when picked, sweet, 
rich and melting, ripening with Snyder. Considered one of the de- 
pendable varieties for home or market. 

Minnewaski. — -Originated and introduced by A. J. Caywood, of 
Marlboro, N. Y. A good grower, erect, branching, strong. Canes 
grooved, and thickly covered with long, straight spines. Hardy 
and productive. Fruit clusters large; fruit very large, long, dull 
in color, and somewhat hairy in appearance, of fair quality. 

Missouri Mammoth. — Disseminated from Northern Missouri. 

Mountain Rose. — -Mentioned. Kan. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1886, p. 297. 

Nanticoke. — A strong grower, productive, rust-resistant and hardy. 
Fruit large, juicy, rich and sweet. Said to be a fine table berry but 
not firm enough to stand long hauls. Very late. Introduced in 1912. 

Needham White. — -Introduced to notice by J. Shed Needham, of 
Massachusetts, sometime about 1850. Described as of lilac color. 
Canes light green and thickly covered with short, stiff, green hairs. 

Nevada. — Said to be quite productive, of fair size and excellent 
quality. 

Never Fail. — Thought to have originated in central Ohio. One 
grower says that "it never fails to produce an abundance of wood, 
but always fails to produce fruit. I never had a perfect berry." 

Newman Thornless (H). — -Discovered by Joseph Newman, Ulster 



Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 227 

county, New York. Canes of moderate growth, and thornless. 
Fruit rather large, oval, of very good flavor. According to one 
grower, it produces few thorns and fewer berries. 

Ohmer. — A seedling found by N. Ohmer, of Ohio. Hardy, healthy 
and productive. Fruit large, late, firm, no core, and sweet before it 
becomes soft. Ripens with Taylor. 

Ozark. — "Better than either Snyder or Taylor, and more pro- 
ductive."— Mo. Hort. Soc. Rept. 1883 : 79. 

Parish Pink. — Of no more value than other white varieties. 

Parker Early. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p. 286. 

Parnell. — A variety originated by Mr. Normand, of Marshville, 
Louisiana. La. Exp. Sta. Bull. 3, 2d series. 

Peruvian (Blackberry). — A variety of the common European black- 
berry. Growth rank and dense; canes very long and large. Fruit 
small, sweet, lacking in character. 

Phenomenal (Berry). — Produced by Luther Burbank and claimed 
to be a cross between the California dewberry and Cuthbert. Similar 
to the loganberry but thought to be superior in some respects. 

Piasa. — Sent out by E. A. Riehl, Alton, 111. 

Piasasaw. —Mention. Proc. N. J. Hort. Soc. 1900 : 192. 

Premo (D). — An early variety found in a patch of Lucretia. Much 
like Lucretia but seven to ten days earlier. Quality and size uniform. 
Bloom imperfect; should be planted with Lucretia or Austin. 

Primus (D). — A variety produced by Luther Burbank, of Santa 
Rosa, California, and said by him to be a cross between Rubus 
vitifolius and R. crat&gifolius. The plant is said to be a strong grower 
and productive, partially trailing, thickly covered with short, blunt 
prickles, propagating by tips, though with some difficulty. Fruit 
large, long, sweet, resembling the raspberry in flavor, adhering to 
the core and ripening with the Hansell raspberry. Hard to pick and 
too soft for market. A colored plate, together with a description, 
appears in the report of the United States Pomologist for 1892. 

Purple-Fruited. — A blackberry reported from Orwell, Ohio, with 
ripe fruit purple instead of black. — Meehan's Monthly, 1895 : 185. 

Rathbun (H).— Sent out by A. F. Rathbun of Smith's Mills, N. Y. 
Thought to be a cross between the Wilson blackberry and a dew- 
berry, having the- trailing habit of the dewberries the first year, 



228 Bush-Fruits 

rooting at the tips and producing suckers but sparingly. Hardy 
and productive. Fruit large, firm, glossy jet black, with small seeds, 
good flavor and soft core. Ripens about with Wilson. 

Red Hybrid. — Mentioned in "Experiments and Public Work of 
the Colorado Agr. College," 1884, p. 15. 

Reyner. — Canes strong, vigorous, greenish, with few prickles. 
Fruit short, irregular, with large drupelets, sweet and of good quality 
but small. 

Robinson. — Originated by Willard R. Cisco, of Texas. Described 
as vigorous, upright, prolific, large and of good quality. Reported 
good in Texas but a shy bearer in the North, being unable to stand 
a temperature much below zero. 

Rodgers (D). — Offered as the earliest variety in Texas. Large, of 
excellent quality and a good shipper. 

Role Early.— Mentioned. Rept. Kan. Hort. Soc. 1887-8, p. 482. 

Sable Queen. — Introduced by J. W. Manning, Reading, Mass. 
Said to equal Dorchester or New Rochelle in size, beauty and fruit- 
fulness.— Downing. 

Sadie. — Sent out from Iowa under the claim that its cells were so 
arranged as to resist very low temperatures. 

Sanford. — Very productive but too small to be of value. Fruit 
resembles Snyder. 

Seedless Blackberry. — Not seedless, but the seeds are small. A 
good family berry in California. R. N. Y. 1908 : 234. 

See Early. — So much like Brunton's Early that it may be the same. 
IU. Hort. Soc. 1878 : 125. 

Simpson.— Mentioned. p roc . N. J. Hort. Soc. 1900 : 192. 

Sinclair. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine, 1868, p. 285. 

Skagit Chief (D). — A variety sent out from the state of Washing- 
ton in 1891. Supposed to be R. vitifolius. 

Snyder. — This is the best known of all blackberries. What the 
Baldwin is to the apple in the eastern states and the Ben Davis 
in the West; what the Concord is to the grape; what the Lombard 
is to the plum, the Snyder is to the blackberry. It originated as a 
chance seedling, on or near the farm .of Henry Snyder, near La Porte, 
Ind., about the year 1851. It is a vigorous, strong, upright grower; 
very hardy and productive. Fruit of poor quality, medium size, 




Plate VII. Blackberry. — The Snyder, about five-eighths natural size. 



Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 229 

nearly globular, of good appearance and a good shipper. The berries 
tend to turn red after picking, if exposed to sunlight. (Plate VII.) 

Sorsby.—A Texas variety. R. N. Y. 1914 : 765. 

Stayman (Early). — Introduced by A. J. Stayman, Leavenworth, 
Kansas. Early, of excellent quality and productive. It has not 
proved valuable in the eastern states. 

Sterling Thornless (H). — A chance seedling, found on the farm of 
John F. Sterling, Benton Harbor, Mich., in a field where Wilson 
and Lawton had been growing. The canes resemble those of Wilson 
in size, shape, and color, but are comparatively thornless. The fruit 
is borne in cymose clusters, with long pedicels, like the dewberries. 
Size medium, oblong, with large, rather loosely set, round drupes. 

Stone (Hardy). — An Illinois variety of spreading habit, with fruit 
mostly hidden beneath the foliage. Hardy, maturing its wood early 
on suitable soils. Fruit rather small, roundish, black, soft, very 
juicy, mild, and pleasant. 

Success. — Very productive, plants moderately vigorous, canes of 
a greenish color, grooved, bearing abundant prickles. Berries 
medium to large, roundish, of good flavor. 

Taylor (Taylor's Prolific). — Introduced by Mr. Taylor, of Spice- 
land, Henry Co., Indiana, about 1867. It has peculiar greenish- 
yellow, round canes, somewhat slender and trailing in young plants. 
Very hardy, vigorous and productive. Fruit large, roundish-oblong 
or thimble shaped, soft in texture, juicy, very mild and rich. It 
ripens late, about two weeks after Snyder. This is one of the best 
and most dependable varieties I have known. 

Tecumseh. — A variety of the Taylor type which originated in 
Western Ontario. 

Texas (Early) (Crandall, Crandall's Early). — Said to be large, 
fine flavored and firm, ripening two weeks earlier than Lawton. 
Grown in California, but has not proved valuable in the East. 

Texas Hybrid (Texas Pink Hybrid). — Of medium size, delicate 
pink color, sweet and nearly free from seed. 

Topsy (Childs's Tree Blackberry). — Canes stout, upright and 
viciously thorny, but not hardy; fruit large, late, soft, of good, but 
not high quality. Of no real value in cultivation. 

Truman Thornless. — Received at the office of the United States 



230 Bush-Fruits 

Pomologist in 1892, from G. P. Peffer, Pewaukee, Wisconsin, and 
mentioned in the report of that year. Said to be nearly thornless, 
as hardy as Snyder, earlier and better. 

Wachusett. — Found growing wild on Monadnock Mountain, in 
Massachusetts. A shy bearer of little practical value, but of his- 
torical interest. 

Wallace. — Introduced by Wallace of Wayne Co., Indiana, about 
1862. Stocky, upright, with broad round leaves resembling Snyder; 
hardy, vigorous and productive. Fruit large and of excellent quality. 
A valuable mid-season variety. 

Wapsie. — An Iowa variety, mentioned as on trial and proving 
very hardy thus far.— Rept. Ohio Hort. Soc. 1888 : 192. 

Ward. — Largely grown in New Jersey, where it was found growing 
wild. Thought to be a seedling of Kittatinny, which it much re- 
sembles. Plant hardy, vigorous, productive and much more rust- 
resistant than its parent. Fruit large, black throughout, without 
a hard core, sweet and of excellent quality. 

Warren. — Fairly hardy and quite productive. Berry about like 
Snyder in quality and size. 

Washington. — Raised by Prof. C. G. Page, Washington, D. C. 
Fruit large, black, sweet and good. — Downing. Mentioned as new 
in Hovey's Magazine, in 1859. 

Washington Belle. — Sent out from the state of Washington with 
the Skagit Chief. Both varieties appear to have the imperfect 
blossoms so common in the western dewberry. 

Watt. — Found growing in an orchard near Lawrence, Kansas, some 
years ago. A strong grower, productive, hardy and resistant to 
disease. Begins ripening early and extends late into the season. 
Fruit large, roundish, glossy black and of good quality. 

Western Triumph. — 'Found upon the open prairie, in Lake county, 
Illinois, in 1858, by Mr. Biddle, of Muskegon. Fruit of medium 
size. Lacking in hardiness, and inclined to overbear. 

Weston. — Originated with Adrian Durkes, of Weston, Mo., who 
considered it more productive than Newman or Lawton. 

White Dewberry (D). — White dewberries appear to be well known 
in Texas. One is mentioned in the" Gardener's Monthly for 1877, 
p. 174, as being known among the horticulturists of that state. 



Varieties of Blackberries and Dewberries 231 

What is very likely the same thing was received from Colorado 
county, of that state, and introduced by Samuel Wilson, of Penn- 
sylvania, in 1890, under the name Mammoth White, or Wilson's 
White. The natural inference is that the Albinfl White of Parry 
and the Crystal White of Childs belong to the same type. 

Wilson (Wilson's Early) (H).— This variety was discovered by 
John Wilson, of Burlington, N. J., about 1854. The bush partakes 
of the habit of both the low and the high blackberry, some of the 
shoots being erect and branching, others slender, and trailing on 
the ground, indicating a hybrid origin. The trailing shoots some- 
times take root at the tips. The fruit is very large, firm, somewhat 
irregular, tapering toward the apex; grains mostly large, but with 
some small ones mixed in. Long a popular variety in New Jersey. 
It demands close pruning to prevent overbearing, and must be 
covered for winter protection in most localities. 

Wilson Junior (H).— William Parry, in 1870, selected plants of 
Dorchester and Wilson and planted them together, far away from 
any others, trusting that the pollen of one kind might mix with the 
other. In 1875 he selected some of the best Wilson varieties for 
seed. After watching the other seedlings for four years, the largest 
and best was selected, and this is Wilson Junior. — Gar. Month. 
27 : 208. The plant is so like its parent, the Wilson, as to be indis- 
tinguishable from it. 

Windom (Cook's Hardy) (D).— Brought to notice in 1887 by the 
Seedling Commission of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society. 
It was discovered and brought into cultivation by Dewain Cook, of 
that state, who found it to be hardy, productive, of fair size, and 
good flavor. 

Woodland.— Plants thrifty, productive, with abundant small 
prickles. Fruit medium, with large grains; flavor and quality good. 

Recommended varieties of blackberries and dewberries. — 
Snyder long held the lead as a commercial blackberry 
and even yet stands well to the front. Its hardiness, pro- 
ductiveness, bright color and good shipping qualities have 
been in its favor. Its quality is poor, and it ought to be 



232 Bush-Fruits 

replaced by better varieties wherever possible. Taylor is a 
better berry and nearly or quite as dependable, possibly 
not quite so attractive in appearance. Other varieties 
which are in high repute in certain localities are Ancient 
Briton, Eldorado, Erie, Mersereau and Ward. 

Among dewberries, Lucretia appears to lead in the 
East, Mayes in the Middle West and Southwest, while 
the loganberry and Mammoth seem to be the great berries 
of the Pacific slope. 



CHAPTER IX 

INSECTS AFFECTING THE BRAMBLES 

The insects which attack brambles are many and 
various, some serious, others but chance or general feeders. 
Taken as a whole these fruits are less subject to injury 
than many others, though at times considerable damage 
may occur from the depredations of some of their enemies. 

In this discussion no exhaustive treatment of any of 
them will be attempted. The more important facts con- 
cerning their life-history, together with the most feasible 
methods of combating them, are given in condensed form, 
for the use of the busy man who may need to meet them 
and do it promptly, with little time for investigation or 
study. Slingerland and Crosby's " Manual of Fruit In- 
sects," to which the reader is referred for a more complete 
discussion of many of them, is drawn on largely for present 
knowledge and recent methods of control. 

THE TREE-CRICKET 

(Ecanthus nigricGrnis, Walker 

The work done by this insect was, until recently, attributed to 
another species, the snowy tree-cricket, which is now found to limit 
its work chiefly to apple and other fruit-trees. The insect is a deli- 
cate, greenish-white, long-horned cricket, with broad and trans- 
parent wing-covers, through which the folded wings can be seen. 
These wing-covers are crossed by oblique thickenings or ribs, which 

233 



234 Bush-Fruits 

form part of the musical apparatus of the insect. Its chirp is a 
familiar sound at night during late summer and autumn. 

The insect is beneficial, in the main, rather than injurious, since 
the young crickets, which hatch in May and June, feed principally 
on aphids and other soft-bodied insects. The only injury worthy 
of mention is that caused by the female in depositing her eggs in 
autumn. Their location is shown by a narrow, ragged wound, some 
two inches long. If the cane is split open there will be found inserted 
in the pith a row of oblong, cylindrical, yellowish eggs, about one- 
eighth of an inch in length. These punctures may either kill the 
upper part of the cane or weaken it to such an extent as to prevent 
the fruit from ripening. 

Remedy. — Since the eggs are laid in autumn, but do not hatch 
until the following summer, cutting out and burning the wounded 
parts at the annual pruning is the only remedy necessary. 
Reference. 

Parrott, Jour. Ec. Ent. 4:216. 

THE BRAMBLE FLEA-LOUSE OR BLACKBERRY PSYLLID 

Trioza tripunclala, Fitch 

This insect is a jumping plant-louse, closely related to the pear 
psylla. It occurs in the Atlantic states from Maine to Virginia. Its 
native food is the wild blackberry and it has long been known as 
an enemy of the cultivated blackberry. The following description 
and life-history are taken from Slingerland and Crosby's Manual of 
Fruit Insects. 

"The adult insect is about one sixth inch in length; the body is 
yellowish-brown, the eyes dark brown, and the wings marked by 
three yellowish-brown bands. The insect hibernates as an adult. 
The flies appear on the blackberry soon after growth starts in the 
spring and deposit their minute, light yellow eggs in the pubescence 
of the leaf petioles and young canes. On Long Island adults, eggs 
and newly hatched nymphs were observed the latter part of June. 
Both adults and nymphs puncture the leaves and tender canes with 
their piercing mouth-parts and feed on the juices of the plant, causing 
the leaves to curl, also dwarfing and distorting the young canes. 



The Bramble Flea-louse 



235 



The minute young nymphs are whitish or greenish white in color; 
the older nymphs are yellowish. They mature in early fall and the 
adults go into hibernation." 

The effect on the plant was well described by Charles Parry, a 
horticulturist of New Jersey, as long ago as 1869. He says: 

"The suckers upon which this insect occurs in the spring com- 
mence to twirl around, and, when 
not interfered with, make a com- 
plete revolution before they re- 
sume their usual course. The 
leaves curl up, and become 
matted around the curl, so as to 
make a safe harbor for the lice-like 
larva?, which during the summer 
appear on the under surface of 
the leaves." 

Owing to the peculiar distorted 
appearance of infested plants the 
injury has sometimes been mis- 
taken for a fungous disease. In 
some localities it is known under 
the name of "mistletoe." (Fig. 
26.) 

Methods of control. — 'Thorough 
work in cutting out and destroy- 
ing the infected parts is the means 
of control most generally advised. 
It has also been suggested that 
methods similar to those used 
against the pear psylla might 
prove effective. Tobacco extract 
and kerosene emulsion are the favorite remedies for this purpose 
Little definite knowledge seems to be available. 
Reference. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Rept. 14:619 (1895). 




Fig. 26. Blackberry "mistletoe," 
work of the bramble flea-louse. 



236 Bush-Fruits 

THE BTJD-MOTH 

Tmetocera ocellana, Schiffermuller 

The bud-moth is primarily an apple insect but often attacks black- 
berry plants, as well as other fruits. It spends the winter as a half- 
grown, dark brown, black-headed caterpillar, in a little silken retreat 
near the buds. As soon as the buds begin to open in spring the 
caterpillars leave their winter quarters and begin feeding on the 
tender buds. They tie the expanding leaves and flowers together 
with silken threads, drawing in more leaves and flowers as needed. 
The partly eaten leaves soon turn brown, thus rendering the work 
conspicuous. 

The larva lives most of the time within a tube formed by rolling 
the edge of the leaf down, fastening it, and sparsely lining the in- 
terior with silk. It comes forth from this tube to feed, but quickly 
retreats into it again when disturbed. Pupation occurs in a cocoon 
formed in a similar manner. The moths, which in New York ap- 
pear in the latter part of June, fly mostly at night, remaining quiet 
on the trunk and limbs of trees during the day, and are so similar to 
the bark in color as not to be easily seen. 

The eggs are generally laid singly on the under surface of the 
leaves, and are so nearly transparent that they closely resemble 
fish scales or minute drops of water. They hatch in from seven 
to ten days, and these summer larvae soon make themselves a tube 
of silk mingled with bits of excrement. They feed on the epidermis 
and inner tissue of the leaf, not eating through it, and spin a protect- 
ing web over their entire feeding ground. After the third moult, 
when they have attained a length of about 4 millimeters, they leave 
their tubes, and make for themselves a little silken cell in some crevice 
or roughness of the bark, where they pass the winter, in readiness for 
the opening buds the following spring. Their injuries at that time 
are particularly exasperating, because they apparently destroy as 
many leaves and flowers as possible by eating only a part of each. 
There is normally but one brood in northern latitudes, though since 
the larvse hibernate when half-grown, two different generations 
appear during the same season. 



The Bramble Crown-borer 237 

Remedies. — Spraying with arsenical poisons just as the buds open, 
or gathering and destroying the brown "nests" which are formed 
by the dead leaves soon after the insect begins its work, appear to 
be the most feasible means of attack. Several parasites, some birds, 
and a large predacious wasp, prey upon this insect and help to hold 
it in check. 
Reference. 

Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bulls. 50 and 107. 

THE BRAMBLE CROWN-BORER (FIG. 27) 

Bembecia marginata, Harris 

This insect is a near relative of the peach-borer, being so similar 
in all its transformations that it has at times been mistaken for that 
insect by growers. The adult insects are clear-winged moths, appear- 
ing much like wasps or hornets, for which 
they may be readily mistaken when seen 
in the open field. The body of the insect 
is rather more than half an inch in length, 
black and prettily banded with golden 
yellow, with a tuft of yellow hair near 
the base of the abdomen. The wings 
are narrow, transparent, with a bronze or Fig. 27. Crown-borer, 
reddish brown margin, the front wings Bembecia marginata. 
having also a narrow cross-band toward the tip. They measure 
about an inch across when expanded. 

The moths emerge during August and early September and the 
eggs are deposited on the under side of the leaves near the edge. 
The young caterpillar crawls down the cane and goes into winter 
quarters in some protected place, usually just underneath the surface 
of the ground. In spring it enters the roots or the base of the cane, 
generally burrowing just underneath the bark and girdling that 
part of the plant. The second winter they hibernate in their burrows, 
being then one-half to three-fourths inches long. In spring they 
work upward, then outward to near the surface before changing to 
the pupa stage. 

Destroying the larva by digging it out or removing and burning 




238 Bush-Fruits 

the wilting or dying tips which show its presence are the only prac- 
ticable methods of control known. 
References. 

N. J. Expt. Sta. Spec. Bull. N. (1891). 

Wash. Expt. Sta. Bull. 63. 

THE RASPBERRY CANE-MAGGOT 

Phorbia rubivora, Coquillett 

This is the larva of a true fly, grayish black in color, closely re- 
sembling the common house-fly, though not quite as large. The 
larva is a slender, white, footless maggot, found burrowing in the 
tips of raspberry canes. It is closely related to the radish and onion 
maggot. The eggs are laid early in spring, very soon after the young 
canes start, in the fork at the base of the tip leaves. The young larva 
burrows into the cane near the point of hatching, works its way down- 
ward in the pith a short distance, then proceeds to girdle the cane 
inside the bark. The part above the girdle soon wilts, turns to a 
dark blue color and dies. The effect is usually to kill the entire shoot 
also. The larva continues to bore downward in the dead or dying 
cane, transforms to a pupa near the base, and there remains until 
the following spring, when it emerges as the adult fly. 

Although often a serious pest, the insect may readily be over- 
come. If the wilting tips are gathered and burned as soon as no- 
ticed, which will usually be during May, the work of those larvae 
will be forever ended. 
References. ( 

Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. 126:54. 

Wash. Expt. Sta. Bull. 62. 

THE AMERICAN RASPBERRY BEETLE (FIG. 28) 

Byturus unicolor, Say 

This insect is doubly troublesome, because injurious, or at least 
annoying, both in the perfect and in the larval state. The mature 
insect is a small beetle about three-twentieths of an inch long, of a 
yellowish brown or pale reddish color, and densely covered with 
fine, pale yellow hairs. In this form it is injurious to raspberries and 




The Red-Necked Cane-Borer 239 

blackberries, first by attacking the opening buds and tender leaves, 
then by eating into the flower buds and destroying the sexual organs. 
A hole in the side of the bud will show where the 
beetle has entered. When the injury is complete, 
the buds usuaUy wither and fail to open; if only 
partial, the flower may expand, but only to develop 
an imperfect, worthless berry. It also attacks the 
open flowers, partially hiding at the base of the 
stamens. It works chiefly in the morning and even- 
ing, seldom being seen in the middle of the day. Fig. 28. By- 
Its offspring appears as a 'small, soft, tarnished tUrus unicolor - 
white worm, remaining on the fruit of the red raspberry when it is 
gathered. It is usually found within the cup or cavity of the berry 
and is difficult to detect. ' 
When full grown, the larva drops to the ground, often with the 
berry, no doubt, hides under any convenient rubbish, forms a little 
cell m the earth, and changes to a hairy pupa of a pale, dull yellowish 
color. Here it remains during the winter, transforming to the per- 
fect beetle about the middle or latter part of May, and emerging in 
time to carry on its destructive work in the blossom buds. 

Remedies.— Thorough spraying with arsenate of lead at the rate 
of three to four pounds to 50 gallons of water, at the time when 
the beetles first appear, has been found effective at the Ohio Ex- 
periment Station. Shallow cultivation in the fall has been suggested 
as a means of destroying the pupae. 
References. 

Fitch, Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc, 1870, p. 358. 
Felt, Rept. N. Y. State Ent. 15:158 (1898). 
Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 202. 

THE RED-NECKED CANE-BORER (PIG 29) 
RED-NECKED AGRILUS GOUTY-GALL BEETLE 

Agrilus ruficollis, Fabr. 

In winter and spring the canes of raspberries and blackberries 

often show one or more comparatively ..small and regular swellings, 

an inch or more in length, the outer portions being roughened with 

brownish slits and ridges. They are rarely more than one-third 



240 



Bush-Fruits 



thicker than the normal cane, and are caused by the work of a 
small borer, which is very similar in appearance and which belongs 
to the same family as the natheaded apple-tree borer. It is de- 
scribed as about one-third of an inch long, with black wing-covers 

having a dull bluish reflection. 
The thorax or neck has a reddish 
or coppery appearance and the 
head is black with metallic re- 
flections. They may be found 
from late May until August, being 
most abundant in June. The 
egg is laid near the base of a leaf 
on the young growth. The galls 
are usually confined to the main 
canes, and may be near the base, 
or two or three feet above ground, 
though sometimes even the more 
vigorous laterals are attacked. 
The injured canes may put forth 
leaves and blossoms, but the fruit 
seldom ripens, and the cane dies 
before the end of the season. 

The larvae burrow in a spiral 
direction, confining themselves, 
in the early stages of their exist- 
ence, wholly to the sap wood, 
and by this means girdle and kill 
the cane. According to one ob- 
server, this habit of girdling the 
cane in order to kill it the first 
season seems to contribute to the 
safety of the larvae, which other- 
wise freeze and perish, perhaps owing to the greater quantity of sap 
which surrounds them in living canes. They are said to be more fre- 
quently destroyed in this manner in blackberries than in raspberries. 
Like the crown-borer, it often escapes detection by reason of the be- 
lief that the injury is due to winter-killing. 




Fig. 29. Agrilus ruficollis, the red 
necked cane-borer and its work. 



The Rose Chafer 241 

The larva reaches its full size toward the latter part of April, 
bores into the middle of the cane, where it will be more secure from 
insect foes, forms a smooth, oval cell, and transforms into a white 
pupa, showing quite plainly the marks of the future beetle. It 
gradually darkens, and assumes more and more the form of the 
perfect insect. 

Control. — 'As the perfect insect does not emerge from the cane till 
late in spring, it is only necessary to attend to the spring pruning 
promptly, taking care to watch for and remove all galls. All wood 
cut away should be carefully collected and burned, for removing it 
from the root in no way hinders the development of the beetles. 
Although black raspberries are attacked, no galls are formed and 
little or no injury is done, the insect apparently confining its work to 
the center of the cane. This may make its destruction more difficult, 
since its presence cannot be easily detected. Wild bushes growing 
in the vicinity are also a menace by serving as breeding-grounds. 
The insect is reported more destructive in the southern than in the 
northern states. 
References. 

N. J. Expt. Sta. Spec. Bull. N. 

W. Va. Expt. Sta. Bull. 15. 

Ohio Expt. Sta. Bull. 45. 

THE ROSE CHAFER (PIG. 30) 

Macrodactylus subspinosus, Fabr. 

In sandy regions, where it is prevalent, this is one of the most 
dreaded enemies of the horticulturist. It appears in such vast 
hordes oftentimes, and is so difficult to poison, that it is very hard 
to combat. In July the female beetle lays about thirty whitish, 
nearly globular eggs about one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter, 
which are placed three to six inches beneath the surface of the ground. 
The eggs hatch in about twenty days, and the young larvae feed 
on the roots of grasses and other plants until the approach of cold 
weather, when they work their way deeper into the ground, passing 
the winter in a torpid state. In spring they approach the surface 
and form an oval cell of earth in which to pupate, and from which 




242 Bush-Fruits 

they emerge in great numbers* all at once, a habit common to other 
beetles of the class to which they belong. This occurs about the time 
that grapes are in blossom. The favorite food of 
the mature beetle consists of flowers, especially those 
of the rose, grape, spirea, sumach, magnolia, etc.; but 
the foliage of nearly all plants also suffers. In one 
report of their ravages in New Jersey, Professor 
Smith says: "Of the small fruits, the blackberries 
seemed very attractive. They were on each blossom, 
and ate the petals but left the green forming fruit. 
Last year they ate the leaves as well, and left only 
Fig. 30. Rose ^q canes . This year they left the leaves. Raspber- 
ries were totally destroyed." 
Although occurring throughout the greater portion of the northern 
half of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, it appears 
to be more or less local in its habits, for in parts of central New York 
and northern Pennsylvania it is seldom or never seen. In the Gulf 
states and the extreme southwest the species is replaced by other 
closely allied ones. These, though very similar in appearance are 
usually less destructive. 

Remedies. — Many remedies have been tried against this insect, but 
usually with very unsatisfactory results. Ordinary spraying has af- 
forded little relief. The insects either avoid the poison or are af- 
fected so slowly that little benefit results. Recently it has been found 
that sweetening arsenate of lead with molasses or glucose gives much 
better results. Four pounds of the lead arsenate and one gallon of 
molasses to fifty gallons of water are the proportions recommended. 
It should be applied as soon as the beetles appear and repeated if 
necessary. Thorough cultivation of the soil when the insect is in 
the pupa stage, during late May and early June, is thought to de- 
stroy many of them. Waste grass lands which afford breeding- 
grounds for the pest are objectionable in the vicinity. 
References. 

N. J. Expt. Sta. Bull. 82. 
Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 331. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 11 and Bull. 97. 
Hartzell, Jour. Ec. Ent. IV, 19. 



The Raspberry Cane-borer ' 243 

THE RASPBERRY CANE-BORER (FIG. 31) 

Oberea bimaculata, Olivier 

The larva of this species is a footless grub, similar to the round- 
headed apple-tree borer in form, found boring in both blackberry 
and raspberry canes. It is best known as a raspberry insect, but in 
Bulletin 23 of the Cornell University Experiment Station, from which 
the following quotations are taken, an instance is recorded of serious 
injury to blackberries. In this case the boring larva? were found only 
in the bearing canes, while in raspberries they attack the young shoots. 

"The mature insect is a long-horned, slender-bodied beetle about 
half an inch in length. It is of a deep black color, except the segment 
next the head, the prothorax, which is yel- 
low. There are usually two or three black 
spots on the upper part of this segment, 
but frequently these are wanting. 

"The eggs are laid in the early summer, 

usually during the month of June. They 

were not observed in the blackberry; but 

when the insect infests raspberries, the 

first indication of the injury noticed is Fig - 31 - 7 . Cane-borer. 

-,-, ,-, . ,, -. -, . , ,, (Joerea bimaculata. 

usually the withering and drooping 01 the 

ends of the young shoots. If these be examined, there will be found 

at the base of the wilted portion two rows of punctures encircling the 

cane about half an inch apart, and between them a small hole in which 

an egg has been deposited. This double girdling of the cane is done 

by the beetle with her jaws at the time she lays her egg. It has been 

suggested that the purpose served by this girdling is the arresting of 

the circulation of the sap in this part of the cane; and in this way the 

prevention of the crushing of the tender egg by a vigorous and rapid 

growth of the tip of the cane." The larvae bore downward in the 

pith of the cane, probably reaching the root in autumn, where they 

transform and pass the winter. "The burrows are about one-eighth 

of an inch in diameter; they wind from side to side of the pith, and 

at frequent intervals penetrate the woody part of the cane. In some 

of the cases where the woody part of the cane is penetrated, an 

opening is made through the bark. These openings occur at in- 




244 Bush-Fruits 

tervals of a few inches throughout the length of the tunneled portion 
of the canes; they are small, being about one-third of the diameter 
of the burrow; and their object is to enable the larva to deposit its 
excrement outside of the burrow." 

Remedies. — "The methods of combating this insect are simple, but 
they require prompt attention. As soon as the tips of the canes begin 
to droop they should be cut off below the point where they are girdled. 
In this way the larva can be destroyed before it has begun to bore into 
the lower portion of the cane, and thus only the tip of the cane will 
be lost. When, however, the first indication of the presence of this 
pest is the dying of the entire cane, caused by the boring of the larva, 
the infested canes should be promptly cut out and burned. These 
canes can be readily recognized by the dying of the leaves and by 
the small holes in them described above. They are most likely to 
be observed at the time of the blackberry harvest. It is of the ut- 
most importance that the cutting and burning of these canes should 
be done promptly. For if it be delayed till autumn, the larvae will 
have penetrated the roots and will then be beyond the reach of the 
pruning shears." 
References. 

Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. 23. 

Ohio Expt. Sta. Bull. 96. 

THE STRAWBERRY WEEVIL (FIG. 32) 

Anthonomus signatus, Say 
Although this insect is primarily known as a strawberry pest, 
where its injury is most common and most serious, it breeds in the 
buds of wild blackberries and dewberries and 
some other plants. At times, when abundant, it 
does material damage to cultivated blackberries. 
It is a small curculio or snout-beetle, about one- 
Fig. 32. Weevil, tenth of an inch long, with black head and convex 
Anthonomus sig- g^jn^g wing-covers varying in color from black to 
reddish brown, but with a large black spot on each. 
The insects hibernate in the beetle stage, under rubbish, especially 
in woodlots and hedge-rows. In spring they appear and begin feeding 
on immature pollen, then deposit their eggs in the unopened buds 




The Raspberry Saw-Fly 245 

of strawberries, blackberries, and the like. The eggs are laid inside 
of unopened buds in which plenty of pollen will be found for the 
young larvae to feed upon. After laying the egg the female crawls 
down the stem of the bud and girdles it so that it either falls at once 
or after hanging by a few shreds for a short time. The larvae de- 
velop upon the pollen and inner parts of this fallen bud, then pupate 
within it. The beetles feed for a short time after emerging upon 
pollen, especially that of wild bergamot, then go into winter quarters 
in midsummer, there being but one generation a year. 

Control. — Fortunately, the work of this insect comes in cycles, be- 
ing serious for two or three years then disappearing. Little seems 
to be known in regard to definite means of control. With straw- 
berries, planting largely imperfect varieties which are less subject to 
attack, by reason of not supplying pollen for the insect to feed upon, 
may help. With the blackberry, clean cultivation, to destroy the hi- 
bernating quarters of the beetles, is perhaps the most feasible means 
of attack. 
References. 

Chittenden, Ins. Life, 5:167 and 7:14. 

N. J. Expt. Sta. Bull. 225. 

THE RASPBERRY SAW-FLY 

Monophadnus rubi, Harris 

This insect is a black, thick-bodied, four-winged fly about one- 
fourth inch in length, the female having a yellowish-white band 
across the abdomen. The flies appear in May and the eggs are placed 
between the two layers of the leaf near a vein. The leaf dries at the 
point where the egg is laid, giving it a spotted appearance. The 
larvae feed upon the leaf tissues, eating out irregular holes and even 
all but the larger veins. The full-grown larvae are about three-fourths 
of an inch long, light green in color and covered with transverse rows 
of spine-bearing tubercles. When full grown they leave the bush, 
enter the ground and make for themselves a little oval earthy cocoon 
mixed with silky and glutinous matter, from which the flies emerge 
the following spring. 

Control. — In well-cultivated fields brushing the larvae from the 
plants in the middle of the day so that they fall upon the hot 



246 Bush-Fruits 

ground will destroy them. Arsenical sprays are effective, but owing 
to the danger of poisoning the fruit, hellebore, one ounce to a 
gallon of water, is to be preferred. 
Reference. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 150. 

THE RED-SPIDER 

Tetranychus bimaculatus, Harvey 

This is a minute mite, about one-fiftieth of an inch long, varying 
in color from pale greenish-yellow to dark crimson-red, with two 
dark spots at the side of the body. It is a well-known greenhouse 
pest and sometimes also attacks plants in the open. It thrives best 
in a hot, dry atmosphere, hence is most prevalent in times of heat 
and drought. 

Red-spiders usually work on the under side of leaves under a 
delicate silken web. The young mites are lighter in color than the 
adults and have only six legs instead of eight. They continue to 
breed while conditions are favorable, then hibernate in the ground 
or underneath rubbish until spring. 

Remedies. — Dusting the under side of the leaves with finely pow- 
dered sulfur, or spraying with a mixture of it at the rate of one 
pound to three gallons of water with a little soap added, has been 
found effective. Sulfur is difficult to keep in suspension. To help 
in this it is recommended to dissolve a small amount of glue in 
water to be used in first making a paste of the sulfur. Even then 
constant stirring will be necessary. 

Plain flour paste has been used in California with good results. 
Care is taken to make the paste smooth, without lumps, diluting 
to one gallon of water for each pound of flour. It is then cooked, 
stirring constantly and adding water to offset evaporation. For use, 
four gallons of the stock solution are added to fifty gallons of water. 
This too has a tendency to settle and must be kept well agitated 
while spraying. 
References. 

Maine Expt. Sta. Rept., 1892:133. 

Col. Expt. Sta. Bull. 152. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 166. 



The Raspberry Horntail 247 

THE BLACKBERRY LEAF-MINER 

Metallus rubi, Forbes 

Though ordinarily considered of minor importance, this insect 
may at times cause considerable damage. The adult is a nearly 
black saw-fly about one-sixth of an inch in length. The larvae feed 
between the two layers of the leaf like other leaf-miners, making 
rather large, irregular, blotched mines. Sometimes several of these 
mines may be found on a single leaf. These injured parts turn brown 
and die. The flies appear and begin laying their eggs in May and 
June. The larva is greenish white, with brownish markings, and 
is about one-third of an inch long when full grown. The larvae 
enter the ground an inch or so to transform, and in warmer localities 
there are two broods a year. 

Treatment. — A mixture of one-half pint of "Black Leaf 40" to- 
bacco extract, two pounds of soap and fifty gallons of water, which 
has been found effective against an elm leaf-miner, has been sug- 
gested as a possible remedy of value. 

THE RASPBERRY WEBWORM 

Pamphilius Fletcheri, MacGillivray 

This insect has been reported troublesome in New Brunswick. 
It is a bright green worm, half an inch long when full grown, being 
the larva of a small sawfly. They web together the terminal leaves, 
feeding within. Handpicking, or dusting with hellebore before the 
webs are formed are suggested. 
Reference. 

Fletcher, Rept. Ent. Bot. 1899, p. 180. 

THE RASPBERRY HORNTAIL 

Hartigia abdominalis, Cresson 

This is another cane-girdler, which has caused trouble in California, 
attacking young shoots of raspberry, blackberry, loganberry ,and 
rose. The adult is a slender, yellow and black four-winged horntail 
fly about five-eighths of an inch in length. It is found on the plants 



24a Bush-Fruits 

from April to August. The eggs are inserted just under the bark of 
the young tender tips of the young canes. The larva works down- 
ward, several times around the cane, thus girdling it. It then bur- 
rows upward until the tip dies, after which it works downward 
through the pith toward the base of the cane. When fully grown 
the larva is nearly an inch long and nearly white. It pupates at the 
end of the burrow and the adult gnaws its way out. Crushing the 
egg, the presence of which is shown by the discolored tissue, or cut- 
ting off and burning the dying tips, seem to be the most feasible 
means of controlling it. 
Reference. 

Monthly Bull. State Com. of Hort. Cal. I, No. 12 (1912). 

THE LESS PROMINENT INSECTS 

The preceding list aims to include all species which are injurious 
enough to possess real economic importance, but no strict dividing 
line can be drawn. Special conditions may at times favor the de- 
velopment of a particular insect to such an 
extent that it may become a serious pest for a 
short time, while ordinarily of little impor- 
tance. Much depends upon conditions and en- 
vironment. 

Many others are known to attack bramble 
plants, some of which are general feeders and 
some of which from their very nature can never 
do serious damage. Among those which may 
Fig. 33. Tarnished at times give concern are the ones mentioned 
plant-bug. below. 

The tarnished plant-bug, Lyguspratensis, Linn. 
(Fig. 33), sometimes attacks the young fruits of blackberries and 
perhaps raspberries, causing them to develop imperfectly. No very 
satisfactory method of control seems to be available. 

The raspberry geometer, Synchlora glaucaria, Guen., is a small 
caterpillar which feeds on the leaves and especially the fruit of the 
raspberry and blackberry. Its presence in the fruit is the more an- 
noying because it disguises itself by fastening to the thorny prickles 
of its body bits of dried berry, seed, pollen, leaves or other debris, 




The Less Prominent Insects 



249 



making it difficult to detect. No practical remedy seems to be 
available. 

The giant root-borer, Prionus laticollis, Dru. (Fig. 34), is a very 
large beetle, two or three inches long, which works in the roots of 
blackberries, and other plants. Its 
presence in the blackberry is indicated 
by the sudden dying of one or more 
canes in a hill. The insect is not 
common and can be cdntrolled by 
digging up and destroying the plants 
when the injury first appears. 

The raspberry leaf-roller, Exartema 
permundanum, Clemens, sometimes at- 
tacks the leaves of raspberries and 
blackberries, webbing them together 
in May and June. The larva is dark 
green with a pitchy-black head and 
thoracic shield. Although generally 
distributed in the eastern states it 
seldom does serious damage. Hand- 
picking or early spraying with arsenites will control it if treatment 
becomes necessary. 

The negro-bug, Corimeloena pulicaria, Germar, causes trouble by 
its presence in ripe fruit of berries of all kinds. It is a small, shiny 
black bug about one-eighth of an inch long, with a white stripe on 
each side of the body. It gives a disagreeable "bed-bug aroma" to 
the fruit. No feasible means of control is known. 

Several scale insects may become prevalent on brambles at times. 
Perhaps the commonest is the rose scale, others being the oyster- 
shell and scurfy scales and the European fruit lecanium. 

Other enemies are leaf-rollers, the red-humped apple caterpillar, 
climbing cutworms, the apple leaf-hopper, flea-beetles, clover-mite, 
strawberry root-worms, and other insects. 




34. Giant Root-borer. 
Prionus laticollis. 



CHAPTER X 

DISEASES OF THE BRAMBLES 

Bramble plants are subject to attacks from some 
serious diseases. So injurious are they at times, and so 
hard to control, that the cultivation of one and another 
of these fruits has been driven out of certain localities by 
their ravages. Positive remedies are not easily found. 
From their nature and habit the plants do not lend them- 
selves to treatment as well as many other kinds of fruits. 
Sprays often do not adhere well, and during much of the 
time when they may be needed are unsafe because of the 
presence of the fruit upon the bushes. In some cases 
more definite knowledge concerning the life-history and 
habits of the pest may be needed. It often happens that 
careful methods of growing and training, with frequent 
renewal of plantations, are the most feasible means to 
employ. In some cases such methods are effective, in 
others they are not. 

The present discussion can hope to add nothing to what 
is already known. Its aim is to present in brief form what 
is known that may be of help to the busy grower in his 
fight with these enemies should he meet them. 

RED RUST 

CcBoma inter stitiale, Schlecht. 

This disease was first described by Schlechtendal in 1820 under 
the name given above. Since then its names have been many and 

250. 



Anthracnose 251 

varied, the one in most common use being Cceoma nitens. Its rela- 
tionship to Puccinia Peckiana was supposed to be established inde- 
pendently in Germany and in the United States some years ago. 
Other more recent studies throw doubt upon this relationship and 
suggest that it may belong to an entirely different genus. All this 
is of interest to the botanist but does not concern the berry-grower. 

The appearance of this disease is well known, both on wild and 
cultivated plants. The orange-red color of the under surface of the 
infested leaves is due to the abundance of sori, which produce the 
spores by means of which the disease may be spread from plant to 
plant. These are connected in chains, and form a waxy layer over 
the affected portions. The mycelium of the fungus, which corre- 
sponds to the roots of higher plants, is perennial, living throughout 
the winter in the canes and roots. A plant once attacked is therefore 
doomed. Its vitality is sapped, and its condition is soon manifest 
by the numerous small, weak canes which spring up. 

Treatment. — Diseased plants should be rooted up and burned as 
soon as discovered, to prevent the spore formation and consequent 
spread of the disease. This, if promptly done, is a practical remedy. 
Spraying can only help to prevent new infection. If employed 
against the anthracnose, it will also be of use against red rust spores, 
if they exist. 
Reference. 

Clinton, 111., Expt. Sta. Bull. 29:273. 



ANTHRACNOSE 

Glceosporium Venetum, Speg. 

This disease is probably the most serious fungus, and perhaps 
the most serious enemy, of raspberries and blackberries now known. 
It is reported to have driven the growing of black-caps out of the 
region west of Buffalo, New York, and is becoming abundant on 
Columbian, the leading purple-cane variety. It is also a serious pest 
in the Pacific Coast region. The fungus was first described by an 
Italian botanist, M. Spegazzini, from leaves of the northern cloud- 
berry, Rubus Chamcemorus. It was first mentioned in the United 



252 



Bush-Fruits 



States in the Agricultural Review for November, 1882, by T. J. 
Burrill, who referred to it as the raspberry cane-rust. 

The gray, discolored spots caused by this fungus are well known 
to all berry-growers. They are found on all parts of the plant, but 
on the leaf are not easily distinguished from those of 
some other fungi. They often become so numerous 
that they destroy a large part of the living cane and 
greatly weaken or even kill it. The disease seems to 
be especially injurious just at ripening time. On red 
raspberries its presence sometimes incites a warty 
growth like that shown at Fig. 35. This growth itself 
may be due to the work of other organisms, especially 
crown gall bacteria. 

According to Washburn anthracnose behaves differ- 
ently on different varieties in the Northwest, which 
appears to be true elsewhere. He says that it is chiefly 
confined to the leaves and stems of Cuthhert, while 
only the leaves of Himalaya Giant are attacked. On 
the stems of Snyder blackberry the spots reach three 
or four times the size of a pinhead, are sunken and 
often split when mature. They extend nearly through 
the bark, run together, and form irregular patches 
which may partially girdle the cane. On the leaves 
the spots are only half the size of a pinhead, round, 
white in the center and reddish-brown on the margins. 
They often run together and the dead patches drop 
out. But it is on the fruit that he finds the fungus 
most injurious. It attacks the drupelets at the end 
.p. „_ . and usually at the end of the berry. Several drupe- 
thracnose in- lets in a cluster generally suffer. This may happen 
citing knotty a t any stage of growth but usually when the fruit 
raspberry. & * s s * u ^ green. Few or many drupelets may be affected, 
sometimes all at once, sometimes spreading from one 
to another. The infected spot stops growing and turns a dull 
reddish-brown. If attacked early it dries, if late it becomes 
soft and easily crushed. The drupelets may partially mature 
but the berry is deformed and unsalable. Lucretia dewberry 



Anthracnose 253 

is badly injured but only the stems and leaves are said to be 
attacked. 

The mycelium, creeping between the plant cells, causes their 
destruction and the consequent appearance of the dead spots. Only 
the bark and cambium layer of the stems are affected as a rule, the 
mycelium rarely entering the wood to any extent. Near the center 
of the spots the mycelium threads unite to form a dense tuft, made 
up of the slender club-shaped basidia on which the spores are borne. 
These basidia are formed beneath the surface, but soon rupture it 
and form a minute globule outside, being covered with a clear, 
gelatinous substance which holds the spores in place. When brought 
in contact with water, this substance readily dissolves and allows 
the spores to float away. These germinate readily in water, and 
many of them soon find lodgment in healthy portions of tissue and 
form new centers of infection. If the water which sets them free 
from the inclosing mass soon evaporates, they are readily distributed 
by the wind. 

Treatment. — Experiments have shown that the spores germinate 
most readily in pure water. It has also been observed that the spread 
of the disease is more rapid in wet weather than in dry weather. For 
these reasons .it is advisable to so set and train the plants that they 
shall have plenty of sunlight and air. Excessive pinching of the tips, 
causing the formation of a dense head, is to be avoided. Neglected 
plantations or others in which no pinching is practiced are some- 
times free from the disease. Old wood should be removed and 
burned as soon as fruiting is over. The removal of diseased wood 
is seldom feasible, since all parts of the plant are likely to be at- 
tacked. This should be done in setting young plants, however, 
if it is impossible to get plants which are entirely free from the 
disease. Experiments in different states have shown that careful 
spraying will prove effective and in some cases profitable. Bordeaux 
mixture in the proportion of 4-4-50 is advised before the leaves 
appear, again when the shoots are six inches high and a third time 
just before the blossoms open. It should be remembered that the 
mycelium remains alive in the canes during winter, and that spray- 
ing can in no way cure the disease. It can only prevent, if thor- 
oughly done, the germination of spores as they are produced. The 



254 Bush-Fruits 

longer plants are allowed to remain the more troublesome is the 
disease likely to become. It is usually better, therefore, where it 
is prevalent, to discard and remove plantations after three or four 
good crops have been secured. 
References. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 124:261. 

Washington* Expt. Sta. Bull. 97. 

Burkholder, Phytopathology, 4: 407. 



RASPBERRY CANE-BLIGHT 

Leptosphceria coniothyrium, Sacc. 

Raspberry cane-blight is a disease which has caused much loss 
among commercial raspberry-growers. Apparently it is widely dis- 
tributed and is a serious enemy to combat. It attacks both red 
raspberries and black-caps, though blackberries are apparently 
exempt. It works chiefly on the fruiting canes, though young canes 
are occasionally seen to be affected. The leaves suddenly wilt and 
dry. Sometimes the whole cane may be affected, sometimes only 
a single branch, more frequently only some part. With black-caps 
the disease often starts from stubs left in pruning, gradually working 
downward from branch to branch, sometimes on one side of the 
cane only. Whenever the cane is encircled it dies. Sometimes there 
may be several points of attack on the same cane. The bark where 
attacked is usually lighter colored and smutty, with smoke-like 
patches of spores. Sometimes minute pimples, the spore-cases of 
the fungus, are visible. The diseased wood is much discolored and 
very brittle. Sometimes, when a large part of the cane becomes 
diseased before dying, the wood will crack and the bark peel off. 
Canes may begin dying soon after the leaves appear in spring, but 
the trouble increases as the season advances and becomes most 
serious at ripening time. Canes loaded with ripening fruit may 
suddenly wilt and dry up. The trouble does not seem to spread 
from a single point of infection but diseased canes may be found 
here and there all through a plantation. Thrifty plantations seem 
to suffer as much as neglected ones. Apparently only the canes 




;•.; 



Plate VIII. Enemies. Center, Cane-blight of raspberry. Left, Cane- 
knot of blackberry. Right, cambium miner of red currant (Opostega 
nonstringella) .— Courtesy of Geneva, N. Y., Experiment Station. 



Raspberry Cane-blight 255 

are affected, neither the roots nor the leaves being attacked. A 
diseased cane is shown at Plate VIII. 

In many plantations the loss may not be very serious, yet at times 
it has taken one-fourth to one-half the crop. As a rule it is more 
destructive in older plantations, becoming more and more serious 
as the plants grow older. Yet the damage varies from season to 
season, and a plantation seriously affected one year may sometimes 
suffer less the next. Damp weather during the period of infection 
doubtless favors its spread, but later weather conditions probably 
have little influence. The fungus is supposed to gain entrance to 
the young canes during summer and autumn, perhaps also the 
following spring, when they have become fruiting canes. 

Infection commonly takes place in wounds of various kinds. In 
black-caps it often starts where the young cane has been pinched 
back; also wherever branches have been removed, rubbed or split. 
The wounds of the tree-cricket are a common point of attack. 

All varieties are affected but some more seriously than others. 
Cuthbert and Marlboro, two of the leading commercial red rasp- 
berries, seem to be particularly susceptible. Columbian, on the 
other hand, is comparatively exempt. 

Methods of control. — No definite methods of fighting this trouble 
appear to be available. Spraying does not seem to have given 
results of much promise. The disease is readily carried in young 
plants, hence the first precaution is to secure healthy stock if possi- 
ble. This, in turn, should be planted on uninfected soil, where 
raspberries have not been previously grown. Removing and burn- 
ing the old canes as soon as fruiting is over is a wise precaution, 
since it is upon these old canes that the spores are being ripened. 
In setting young plants, as little of the old cane as possible should 
be left if there is reason to suspect that they carry any of the disease. 
This fungus is probably largely responsible for the fact that rasp- 
berry plantations must be so frequently renewed in order to pro- 
duce profitable crops. 
Reference. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 226. 



256 



Bush-Fruits 



SPUR-BLIGHT OP RED RASPBERRIES (FlG. 36) 



Mycosphcerella rubina, Jacz. 

This disease appears in the form of brown or bluish-black spots 
on the young canes of red raspberries, in late summer or early au- 
tumn. The spots may be from one to 
four inches long and may extend partially 
or wholly around the cane. The bound- 
aries are sharply defined but only the bark 
is affected, the cane itself being uninjured. 
The disease is common on red raspberries 
and is also found on Purple-Cane varie- 
ties, but not on black-caps. During winter 
the spots change to a light gray color and 
the boundaries become indistinct. In 
spring they are thickly studded with small 
black spore-cases, known as perithecia, but 
the wood is still uncolored and the cane ap- 
parently uninjured in growth. In this 
respect it differs decidedly from the cane- 
blight. 

Recent investigations at the Colorado 
Station show that the disease may do con- 
siderable damage by killing the buds and 
thereby preventing the formation of 
branches on the lower portion of the cane. 
Hence the name spur-blight. It appears 
highly probable that the disease may be 
controlled by the use of bordeaux mixture, 
the first application being made when the 
new canes are a few inches high, a second 
one shortly before the blooming period and a third soon after the 
fruit is harvested; but it is doubtful if the damage done is suffi- 
cient to warrant the expense of spraying. 

This trouble was formerly thought to be due to a bacterial disease 
and was figured as such in a previous edition of the present work. 




Fig 



36. Spur-blight 
raspberry. 



Leaf-Spots 257 

Studies made at the Geneva, New York, Experiment Station have 

shown this to be a mistake. 

References. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 226. 

Colorado Expt. Sta. Bull. 206. 

BLUE-STEM OF BLACK RASPBERRY 

Acrostalagmus caulophagus, Lawrence 

This is a disease which has proved very destructive on the Pacific 
Coast, especially in Washington. It first appears on the canes, 
which become discolored and dark, or rarely blue-black. It is most 
conspicuous toward the base and on the most vigorous plants. On 
the young shoots the blue-black color may spread over the entire 
shoot in the course of a few days. The leaves wilt and turn yellow, 
then brown. The fruit only partially develops and is dry, coarse 
and tasteless. The fungus may gradually work its way back into 
the roots, causing a reddish or brown discoloration of the wood. 
It is thought to live over winter in the soil and enter the plant at 
the crown, working upward. It has also been found on the roots 
of red raspberry and blackberry but is not common there. It is 
very destructive at times and may cause a loss of a considerable 
portion of the crop. 

Little definite experimental work appears to have been done in 
trying to control it. Spraying, so far as tried, seemed to be of no 
value. 
Reference. 

Wash. Expt. Sta. Bull. 108. 

LEAF-SPOTS 

Several species of fungi attack the leaves of brambles, causing 
leaf-spots. Among the more common and best known are Septoria 
Rubi, West., with two botanical varieties and Cylindrosporium Rubi, 
Ell. and Morgan. 

These two species differ in their botanical characters but are 
very similar in their general appearance on the leaves. Both cause 
small brown or light-colored spots, and when abundant may do harm 



258 Bush-Fruits 

by the amount of leaf-tissue which is destroyed. Attempts to con- 
trol the trouble by spraying seem thus far not to have given results 
of much promise. 

LEAF-RUSTS 

Two species of Phragmidium, one on blackberries, the other on 
raspberries, are prevalent and sometimes abundant, though seldom 
considered injurious. They are found on the under side of the leaves 
and would be difficult to combat. Blackberries are sometimes at- 
tacked also by late rust which, as its name implies, appears late in 
the season. It is caused by the fungus Kuehneola uridinis (Lk.) 
Arth. 

DOUBLE-BLOSSOM (Fig. 37) 

Fusarium Rubi, Winter 
This disease is very destructive on certain varieties of dewberries 
and blackberries, from New Jersey southward along the coast, but 
especially in the Delaware-Maryland Peninsula. It is known to 
occur on several species of Rubus but is especially severe on Lucretia 
dewberry and Rathbun blackberry. It is re- 
ported to have been so destructive to Lucretia 
on the above peninsula as to drive one-half 
the growers out of the business. The life of a 
field of berries is often shortened two or more 
years by its ravages. 

The disease becomes noticeable when the 
leaf -buds open, the diseased buds usually being 
larger than normal ones. They are often ac- 
Fig. 37. Double- companied by one or more small buds at the 
blossom. gide> The diseased b uds produce "witches' 

brooms" instead of normal shoots. These may consist of a mass 
of short slender twigs or of one good shoot, somewhat reduced, 
with several short deformed ones. Such diseased shoots often remain 
green after the old canes are dead. The blossoms usually have en- 
larged, thickened sepals and petals, and sometimes more than the 
usual number. The petals are generally wrinkled, giving the blos- 
som the appearance of being double. 
The disease generally appears about the second year of fruiting 




Crown-Gall 259 

and increases from year to year until the plantation becomes worth- 
less. On old plants every bud is sometimes deformed. Unlike most 
plant diseases this one does not seem to vary in destructiveness in 
different seasons except as it steadily increases. The affected flower- 
buds either die or produce only worthless fruit. 

The mycelium of the fungus is found within the diseased leaf-buds 
and is especially abundant within the flower-buds. Spores are pro- 
duced within forty-eight hours after the flower-buds open. These 
spores are carried to the young buds of the current year's growth, 
germinate and produce mycelium which remains practically dormant 
within the bud during winter. Canes or parts of canes covered with 
grass are seldom affected. The mycelium develops rapidly in spring 
but does not penetrate the tissues of the plant and pass back into 
the stem, a fortunate fact. 

Treatment. — Spraying has not proved effective against this dis- 
ease. The fact that the spores are produced during the period of 
bloom and fruit-growth indicates that it will not be a feasible method 
of control. Since the fungus does not reach beyond the base of the 
bud it is possible to control it by hand-picking the diseased buds. 
This should be done as soon as the leaf -buds open. They can then 
be readily seen, but later are more difficult to find. Experiments in 
Delaware indicate that this is cheaper than spraying would be if 
effective. It has not been possible to entirely eradicate the disease, 
but it has been held in check. The' yield has been better, the fruit 
of better quality and the life of the plantation prolonged from one 
to two years. Plants for setting should preferably be taken from 
young plantations, since the disease is less prevalent in new fields. 
Reference. 

Cook, Del. Expt. Sta. Bull. 93. 

CROWN-GALL 

Bacterium tumefaciens, Smith et al. 
This disease is characterized by a rough knotty growth about the 
stem of plants at the surface of the ground, on the roots beneath, 
or on the canes or branches. The knots or galls, in their commonest 
form, have a rough or granular appearance, somewhat resembling, 
when young, the callous growth at the end of a cutting. When old 



260 



Bush-Fruits 



they look something like the black 
knot in plums, but are seldom so 
dark in color. In Germany the dis- 
ease is known as "Wurzelkropf." It 
has ruined thousands of trees in dif- 
ferent parts of the United States and 
is one of the dreaded enemies of the 
nurseryman and orchardist. The 
cause of the malady was long in 
doubt, it having been attributed to 
eelworms, slime-moulds and other 
agencies at different times in the 
past. It is now believed to be a 
bacterial disease. It is found on 
daisy, poplar, rose, peach, apple, 
raspberry, blackberry, and many 
other plants. It is either due to the 
same or closely related organisms, as 
in the case of the legume bacteria. 
It is the same disease whether on 
the roots, stems, branches, or at the 
crown of the plant. The bacteria 
live within the cells of the plant. 
Galls are most readily produced in 
soft, growing tissue and especially 
wherever wounds or injuries occur. 
This doubtless led to the belief at 
one time common among nursery- 
men, that the swellings were simply 
due to injuries of different kinds. 
The disease has been very carefully 
studied by the Bureau of Plant In- 
dustry at Washington. Many cross 
Fig. 38. Root-gall of raspberry, inoculations were made, as from 
peach to raspberry, blackberry, and the like, and even from daisy 
to many other plants. The beginning of the gall could sometimes 
be detected as early as the fourth day after the inoculation was 




Raspberry Yellows or Mosaic 261 

made. The disease is even found on legumes, sometimes being mis- 
taken for the nodules of nitrogen-gathering bacteria. A character- 
istic gall as found on raspberry roots is shown at Fig. 38. A knot 
on a blackberry cane may be seen in Plate VIII. 

The galls sometimes afford lodgment for other parasites, such as 
fire-blight, root-rot, and the like. Overfed plants seem most subject 
to attack. The more vigorous a plant the larger the tumor, as a rule. 
Hairy-root of the apple is due to the same or to a very closely related 
bacterium. 

A very peculiar and interesting fact in connection with this dis- 
ease is that in its habit of growth and development and in the forma- 
tion of connecting "stroma" it is very similar to the development 
of cancer in man. Apparently it may very properly be called a 
plant cancer, as suggested by those who have given it most careful 
study in recent years. 

Treatment. — No cure is known for the trouble. The bacteria are 
out of reach, where no external treatment can affect them. Affected 
stock of all kinds should be scrupulously avoided; neither should 
healthy stock be planted on infected land. The disease is very 
prevalent among red raspberries and blackberries, the so-called 
cane-knot of the latter being apparently only one form of it. For 
this reason it may be unwise to plant these fruits among valuable 
young orchard trees. Rigorous nursery inspection in many of our 
states is now doing much to reduce the spread of this disease. 
Reference. 

Bur. of Plant Indust. Bulls. 213 and 255. 

RASPBERRY YELLOWS OR MOSAIC 

Raspberry yellows is a troublesome disease which is not well under- 
stood, its cause being as yet unknown. It is of such frequent oc- 
currence on Marlboro plantations that it is frequently spoken of 
as the Marlboro disease. Plants attacked by it have a stunted, 
yellowish appearance, somewhat suggestive of the Bermuda lily 
disease. The fruiting branches are small, often not over half their 
usual length. The leaves are small, curled downward at the edges, 
and faintly mottled with yellow. Some of the berries dry up with- 
out ripening; others ripen but are small and flavorless. Many of 



262 Bush-Fruits 

the leaves also wither. New canes do not appear to be seriously af- 
fected. The leaves do not wither but some of them may be much 
mottled, while others are normal. The canes themselves seldom 
show injury, and the roots appear to be unaffected. 

Control. — No remedy or preventive is known. Experiments in 
spraying and in methods of fertilizing under the direction of the 
Geneva, N. Y., Experiment Station, proved of no avail. 
References. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 226. 

Melchers, Ohio Naturalist, Vol. 14, No. 6, pp. 281-288, Apr., 1914. 

TOADSTOOLS 

A toadstool fungus, Armillaria mellea, is reported to cause much 
damage to raspberries and blackberries in the state of Washington, 
though the toadstool itself is not commonly found. 

No cure is known. Removing and burning affected plants is the 
only remedy suggested. 
Reference. 

Wash. Expt. Sta. Bull. 3, Special series. 



PART III 
THE GROSELLES 

There is no English word in use which includes both 
currants and gooseberries. Since there is an evident 
need for such a term, the word groselle was adopted in 
the original edition of this book. This is a modification 
of the old French word groiselle, or groisselle, which 
was used for both these fruits before a separate term 
was employed to designate the currant. The present 
French word groseille, meaning a gooseberry, also for- 
merly included both. 

CHAPTER XI 
CURRANTS 

The currant, though less extensively cultivated than 
some of the other small fruits, fills an important place in 
the pomology of our country. Its sprightly and healthful 
qualities render it desirable to the consumer, and its 
staple character makes it a comparatively safe crop for 
the producer. It is almost wholly a northern fruit, having 
no commercial importance in the southern states. Neither 
currants nor gooseberries receive notice in " Florida 
Fruits," by Helen Harcourt, though other small fruits do. 
It does not prosper in hot and dry climates. Even in 

263 



264 Bush-Fruits 

Nebraska it does not succeed well. The plants thrive 
and look healthy, but are comparatively unproductive. 
The fruit is but little seen in market, which is probably 
the result of unfavorable experience. 

The total area devoted to currants in the United States, 
as reported in the census of 1910, is 7,862 acres. The 
total production is given as 10,448,532 quarts, valued at 
$790,431. The Middle Atlantic section leads in produc- 
tion, with an area of 3,239 acres. The smallest area is 
found in the East South Central division, which reports 
only 16 acres. This is followed by the West South Cen- 
tral and the South Atlantic sections, with 46 and 80 acres 
respectively. 

The total area under cultivation ten years before, in 
1899, was 12,863 acres. This shows a decrease of 5,003 
acres or about 39 per cent within that decade. All small 
fruits show a decrease during that period but with none 
of the others is the percentage so great. With black- 
berries and dewberries the falling off is but slight, and 
comparatively unimportant with strawberries. Since the 
currant crop is one easily grown, this seems to indicate 
that the demand is not keeping pace with that for other 
fruits. 

There seems to have been a boom in currant culture 
about 1856, so that American nurserymen were not able 
to keep pace with the demand. 1 In later years there was 
but little fluctuation, the demand having been steady but 
limited. The market for currants is entirely different 
from that for other small fruits, such as strawberries, 
raspberries and blackberries. Although a healthful and 
1 Horticulturist, 1856 : 210. 



Soil and Location 265 

appetizing dessert fruit, it appears to be little used for 
that purpose. Where hundreds of crates of strawberries 
are consumed each year and where raspberries are always 
in demand, it is often difficult to dispose of one crate of 
currants, to the grocers who handle other fruits. Appar- 
ently they are little used except for jelly, and few even 
for that. For many growers the only market is the whole- 
sale one in some distant city. This means that the crop 
must be grown on a wholesale plan if any profit is to result. 

SOIL AND LOCATION 

Currants will thrive and bear some fruit on almost any 
soil, but their natural habitat indicates that to produce 
really satisfactory and profitable crops they need a cool 
and moist soil. Experience has fully demonstrated this 
fact. The best results are, therefore, to be expected from 
strong clay loams. Even a stiff clay, under good culture, 
will be found satisfactory. Strong, moist, sandy loams, 
if not too light, are also good. In the selection of a site, 
the natural habitat of the plant will point to a cool north- 
ern exposure. A proper site may in part offset the dis- 
advantage of an unfavorable soil. Low, moist ground, 
with some reduction in the intensity of the sun's rays, 
will be found advantageous. For this reason the currant 
often thrives well in orchards. This is most satisfactory 
in those regions approaching the limit of its adaptability 
to culture. For family use, it may be planted on the 
north side of buildings or fences. Mulching tends to ac- 
complish the same end, since it keeps the soil shaded and 
cool. 



266 Bush-Fruits 

Regions somewhat elevated are generally more satis- 
factory than lower altitudes, especially toward the south- 
ern limits of its range. In Pennsylvania better fruit is 
said to be produced at an elevation of 1,000 feet than 
on plateaus near the sea. The leaves fall earlier on the 
lower lands, and the fruit is smaller in consequence the 
succeeding year. 

FERTILIZERS 

The currant is a rank feeder, and needs a rich soil, with 
liberal fertilizing. Yet the roots are small and fibrous, 
and do not extend far for food. It must be supplied in 
liberal quantities and close at hand. While no fruit will 
live and apparently thrive under greater neglect than will 
the currant, it is equally true that no fruit will more 
quickly or fully respond to liberal treatment. Too often 
it is relegated to the fence corners, without care or culture, 
there to battle with sod, currant-worms and leaf-spot from 
year to year. Little wonder that the returns are sour and 
small ! 

Liberal applications of stable-manure, preferably in 
the fall or winter, supplemented with the addition of 
wood ashes, or potash in the form of commercial fertilizers, 
in the spring, are always in order. Currants contain 1 0.11 
per cent of phosphoric acid and 0.27 per cent of potash, 
while stable-manure contains only about one-third more 
potash than phosphoric acid, which suggests the need of 
additional potash. There is little danger of too rank 
growth or of diminished fruitfulness from an excess of 
stable-manure. Observations at the Massachusetts State 
1 Exp. Sta. Handbook, p. 402. 



Propagation 267 

Experiment Station 1 show that the desirable qualities 
of the fruit were increased in every case by the applica- 
tion of potash fertilizers. A comparison of sulfate and 
muriate of potash at the Geneva (New York) Experiment 
Station showed no practical difference in favor of either. 2 
To sum up, fertilizing for the currant does not differ from 
that required for other fruits, except that it needs to be 
more liberal than in most other cases, if satisfactory re- 
turns are to be obtained. 

PEOPAGATION 

Currants are readily propagated from hardwood cut- 
tings made from well-ripened shoots of one season's 
growth. The cuttings may be taken and planted either 
in fall or in spring, but the common custom among nursery- 
men is to take them in early autumn, as soon as the leaves 
mature. The leaves commonly begin falling as early as 
August, but they are frequently stripped a week or so 
before the cuttings are taken, which is usually done the 
last of August or first of September. They may then be 
planted at once, or tied in bundles and buried upside down 
with two inches of soil over the butts. In this position 
they may callus, and even form roots, before winter. 

They may be taken up and planted later, removed to 
a cellar and buried in sand during the winter, or be given 
an additional covering and be left where they are until 
spring. If planting is deferred until spring, it must be 
done very early, as they begin growth at a low tempera- 

1 Mass. Agr. Rept. 1884 : 444. Exp. Station Bull. 7. 

2 Annual Rept. 1890 : 283. 



268 Bush-Fruits 

ture, and must receive attention at the earliest possible 
moment. The commoner practice is to plant in nursery 
rows soon after the cuttings are taken. They are said to 
root more quickly if packed in damp moss a week or two 
before planting. The cuttings are ordinarily made from 
six to eight inches long, though the older writings recom- 
mended them to be a foot long. The base should be 
formed with a clean, square cut just beneath a bud. The 
top is commonly a slanting cut some distance above the 
uppermost bud. 

Planting may be by means of a spade, but is more con- 
veniently and rapidly done by plowing furrows and setting 
the cuttings against the land-side of the furrow. One or 
two buds only are left above the surface of the ground, and 
the earth should be firmly packed about the base of the 
cuttings. If set early in September, many of the plants 
will form roots and establish themselves before winter, 
being in condition to begin growth immediately in spring. 
As freezing weather approaches, a shovel plow is some- 
times run through the rows, in order to throw the earth 
toward but not over the cuttings. This leaves a depres- 
sion along the rows, and the plants are then easily pro- 
tected by covering with straw or coarse manure. Mulch- 
ing in some form is essential during the winter, if the 
cuttings are planted in the fall. Rich land should be 
selected, and heavy dressings of well-rotted manure are 
useful. 

G. A. Marshall, of Arlington, Nebraska, an experienced 
nurseryman, gives the following method of propagation. 
As soon as the leaves fall, which is about September first, 
the cuttings are made, nine inches long. Much of the 




Plate IX. One-year currants. 



Propagation 269 

success of the operation depends on long cuttings in the 
dry climate and light soil of Nebraska. They are then 
buried with the butts up and about three inches beneath 
the surface of the ground. About the first of November 
they are taken up and planted in nursery rows, and a 
ridge of earth thrown over them so that they are covered 
about two inches deep. In the spring this covering is 
raked away, so that the tips are left just below the surface 
of the ground. This method is interesting, because it 
shows something of the modifications demanded by a dry 
climate. 

Single-eye cuttings under glass, or greenwood cuttings, 
may be used, but are less satisfactory than hardwood 
cuttings, and are only used under special circumstances. 
Plants may also be grown from layers, and even from 
tip layers, like the black raspberries, but these methods 
have little to recommend them. It was formerly advised 
to cut out all the lower buds in planting cuttings, in order 
to insure a tree form of growth, but this is seldom prac- 
ticed now. Plants so grown are of interest as curiosities 
or novelties, but are not satisfactory in field culture. 

New varieties are grown from seeds, whicn should be 
taken as soon as the fruit is ripe. They may be washed 
from the pulp and dried like vegetable seeds, but it is 
better to sow or mix them with sand at once, and not 
allow them to dry. If mixed with sand, they should be 
buried or kept in a cool, shady place, and sown very early 
in spring. They may be sown, not over half an inch deep, 
in flats or in the open ground, in fine, rich and mellow soil. 
Partial shade and a light mulch of fine manure will aid in 
retaining moisture and prevent the ground from baking. 



270 Bush-Fruits 

The seeds germinate at a low temperature, and are likely 
to start too early unless kept in a shaded place. If sown 
at once in flats, the flats can be kept in a cool, shaded 
place during the winter, and given partial exposure in 
spring. Plunging them in the soil will aid in preserving 
moisture, and covering with a wire screen will insure safety 
from destruction by mice or other animals. If a green- 
house is available they may be brought inside toward 
spring, where the seeds will germinate quickly. The young 
plants may be potted off when two or three inches high, 
and planted out when well established. 

PLANTING 

The first essential in planting fruit is a thorough prep- 
aration of the soil. For currants, the land should receive 
a heavy dressing of stable-manure, and be plowed deep. 
If the underlying layers are hard and impervious to roots 
and moisture, subsoiling may be of value. Under-draining 
will be better. One may choose almost any distance apart 
to set the plants, and find it recommended somewhere in 
horticultural literature. The distances advocated vary 
from three-by-four feet to five-by-eight feet, with every 
possible intermediate combination. Rows six feet apart, 
with the plants four feet apart in the rows, will generally 
be satisfactory. If the design is to cultivate both ways, 
five feet apart each way may be better. Cross-cultivation 
is commonly only needed at intervals, and the wider row 
should be in the direction most convenient for cultivating. 

The land should be in fine, mellow tilth, as deep as 
plowed. It should then be marked both ways, with fur- 



Subsequent Tillage 271 

rows in one direction. It will be still better if these 
furrows are made deeper than necessary to receive the 
plants, in order to insure their being set in a well-fined bed. 
The setting is easily done by placing the plants against 
the land-side of the furrow and drawing the earth about 
them, packing it firmly with the feet. No one point is 
more essential than this thorough firming of the soil 
about the roots. A layer of loose, fine soil should be left 
at the surface, to act as a mulch and prevent the packed 
soil beneath from drying out. The remainder of the fur- 
row may be filled in as cultivation progresses later on. 
One-year-old plants, if vigorous and well grown, are quite 
as satisfactory and cost less money. They are easily set, 
meet with little check in transplanting, and make a 
better growth than if left in the crowded nursery row dur- 
ing the same time. 

The earliness of the currant in starting into growth in 
spring is a point in favor of fall planting. This depends 
so much upon climate that it is unsafe to lay down a 
general rule. Throughout the western plains, where the 
winters are dry and open/fall planting is always uncertain, 
though with careful protection it may succeed. Whatever 
the location, if the planting is undertaken early enough 
in spring there is nothing to fear. If neglected until the 
plants have started into growth, the check must always 
seriously affect the first season's results. 

SUBSEQUENT TILLAGE 

Cultivation of the currant should be shallow. The 
roots run near the surface, and are likely to be injured by 



272 Bush-Fruits 

plowing, or even by the ordinary cultivator. Frequent 
stirring of the soil with a light harrow-tooth cultivator or 
a spring-tooth cultivator having the teeth set well back, 
is most desirable. It may be owing to this habit of shallow 
rooting, that both the currant and the gooseberry succeed 
especially well with mulching. Any refuse material like 
straw, weeds, wild grass, or even coal ashes, may be used. 
The mulching not only replaces cultivation in keeping 
down weeds and retaining moisture, but helps to keep 
the fruit clean as well. This is a good way to grow cur- 
rants for family use, especially if they occupy small or 
inaccessible corners of the yard or garden, where cultiva- 
tion is inconvenient or must be done by hand. In the 
well-arranged fruit-garden, where the plants occupy def- 
inite rows, and also in field culture, cultivation is more 
practicable than mulching. 

PRUNING 

Pruning the currant is often neglected, yet productive- 
ness is largely dependent on it. Plants will produce some 
fruit no matter how treated, hence are likely to be treated 
very indifferently. The fruit is borne both on old and 
on young wood. That which is best, and the most of it, is 
formed near the base of the one-year-old shoots and on 
short one-year-old spurs from the older wood. Conse- 
quently, most of the young wood may be cut away, or the 
old wood may be cut out, leaving young shoots, and fruit 
will still be produced. The younger the wood the finer the 
fruit, as a rule, but the plants are likely to be less produc- 
tive unless a fair supply of wood more than one year old is 



Pruning 



273 



left. Yet this older wood soon becomes weak, and pro- 
duces small and inferior fruit. 

The older plan of training to a tree form (Fig. 39), by 
removing the lower buds from the cuttings when planted, 
is now practically 
discarded. The 
plants are less pro- 
ductive, and if at- ^^ 
tacked by the cur- 
rant borer, the 
whole plant is de- 
stroyed instead of 
a single stalk, as 
when grown in the 
bush form. If the 
tree form is desired 
for novelty or orna- 
ment, six or eight 
shoots are selected, 
as the bush devel- 
ops, to form perma- 
nent branches. 
These are cut back 
to four to six inches 
every year till the 
bush is full grown, 
and afterward to 
only two or three 
buds. All lateral shoots are cut to within an inch of the old 
wood each year. 

For practical field culture, from four to eight main 




Fig. 39. Tree-form currant. 



274 Bush-Fruits 

stems are allowed, and these should be frequently re- 
newed. Wood over three years old should seldom be al- 
lowed to remain. Some expert growers of long experience 
say that none over two years old should be left. Super- 
fluous young shoots should also be cut away, but the buds 
at the base of these may well be left, as they develop into 
fruit-bearing spurs. A difference of opinion exists in re- 
gard to cutting back the young growth. The longer the 
old wood is left the greater will be the demand for cutting 
back. This method may give increased productiveness, 
but finer fruit will result from frequent renewing. The 
more vigorous shoots may be shortened-in, to prevent the 
bush from becoming straggling, and to preserve its bal- 
ance. Since the greater part of the fruit is borne near the 
base of the shoots, shortening these may tend toward a 
better development of the fruit spurs, especially if the 
shoots are nipped back in summer, when they have reached 
sufficient height. In common practice, cutting away part 
of the older canes at the ground in spring, is all that is 
needed. If too many young stalks have been produced, 
the weaker ones should also be removed. 

Experiments in thinning the fruit, made in New Jersey, 1 
showed that when the outer half of the flower-cluster was 
removed with a pair of scissors there were 15 per cent 
more berries to the cluster, and the berries were 7 per cent 
heavier. The quality also seemed to be better. 

Various fancy methods of training are resorted to by 

those with a taste for oddities. Sometimes they are 

trained in "pillar" form, one upright shoot being tied to a 

stake and the side branches kept very short. They may 

1 Garden and Forest, 3 : 19. 



Gathering and Marketing 275 

also be readily trained against a wall. It is said that 
especially fine fruit may be obtained on a north wall. 
They have even been grafted, from time to time, in order 
to secure standard or tree forms. Ribes odoratum is the 
stock most commonly used for this purpose. These 
methods were chiefly in vogue early in the horticultural 
development of our own country, but are now little used. 
The demand for the currant is not such as to warrant 
fancy methods in the hope of a fancy product. Good 
care, liberal feeding and frequent renewal of the bearing 
wood are all that conditions warrant, except as a pastime. 

GATHERING AND MARKETING 

The currant, like other small fruits, should be picked 
only when dry. Although a firm fruit, which stands ship- 
ment well when properly treated, it will quickly spoil 
if gathered and packed when wet. Much care is needed 
to prevent pickers from crushing the berries or tearing 
them from the stems. It is far easier to grasp a cluster 
and give it a pull than it is carefully to sever the stem. 
Only the strictest vigilance will insure proper care in the 
work. This is written with a distinct remembrance of the 
work of some Irish girls, who thought it much more con- 
venient to strip the berries from the clusters and throw 
them into the middle of the baskets loose, than to pick 
the stems at all. All such berries will quickly spoil; the 
juice which exudes from them will soon render the others 
wet and sticky and a general collapse of the whole package 
will result. Varieties like the Fay, which have more clear 
space of stem at the base of the clusters, have a distinct 



276 Bush-Fruits 

advantage in this regard. They can be more easily picked 
without crushing any of the fruits. 

For shipping purposes, the fruit must be picked while 
still hard and firm, in order to carry well. For home use 
or near market it should not be picked too soon, especially 
for dessert use. If left on the bushes until thoroughly 
ripe and soft, they make an admirable dessert fruit when 
eaten fresh. For this purpose the White Grape is one of 
the best, being less acid than most varieties. The fruit- 
ing season may be prolonged until autumn, if the fruit 
is protected by covering the plants with light cheese- 
cloth or netting. 

The fruit is commonly marketed in quart baskets, 
put up in bushel crates like other berries. Of late years 
the grape basket has been gaining in favor as a package, 
and is now extensively used. The nine-pound basket 
is the size preferred by most markets. This is a conven- 
ient size for the consumer, especially if purchased for 
jelly or preserving. 

USES 

The paramount use of the currant is in making jelly, 
for which purpose it is unsurpassed. The red varieties 
are preferred owing to their higher color. White currants, 
if scalded before pressing, are said to make a rich, red 
jelly, not as dark as that from red varieties, but very 
handsome. The fruit, either green or ripe, makes excel- 
lent pies or sauce. It is especially satisfactory when used 
in combination with fruits which lack sprightliness or 
acidity. W T ith a few currants added, even the Russian 
mulberry becomes an appetizing fruit, and the June- 



Duration of Currant Plantations 277 

berry is all that one could wish. The currant supplies 
the requisite acidity, while these fruits furnish the rich- 
ness of flavor which the currant lacks. In canning it 
preserves its qualities intact, so that it is nearly as avail- 
able in winter as in summer. Currant shrub is a pleasant 
summer drink, made from the ripe fruit crushed and 
compounded like lemonade. The juice is said to be very 
useful in soothing fevers. At one time the fruit was re- 
ported 1 as having a steady demand in St. Louis for use 
as a flavoring in soda water. 

As a dessert fruit the currant is not appreciated as it 
should be. Thoroughly ripe fruit, crushed and mixed with 
sugar some time before being served is a most appetizing 
summer fruit. Nature seems to have just adapted it to 
the needs of the hot weather season during which it ripens. 
The ability of the fruit to hang on the bushes so long after 
it ripens adds greatly to its value for use in this way. 
Taken all in all, no member of the bush-fruit family better 
deserves a place in the home-garden than does the currant. 
It adapts itself so well to the varying conditions there 
found, and returns so much for the care demanded that it 
should find a place with every home which can have a 
garden. 

DURATION OF CURRANT PLANTATIONS 

The length of time during which plantings will continue 
productive will depend much on the care and treatment 
which they receive. Downing advised 2 renewing them 
every six or eight years, as finer fruit, with less trouble, 

1 Illinois Hort. Soc. 1890 : 157. 

2 Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, 488. 



278 Bush-Fruits 

can be had from young bushes. He was then recommend- 
ing the tree form of culture, however, and these fail sooner 
than when a number of stalks are grown and renewed as 
fast as they become weak. To the ordinary farmer it 
seldom occurs that they need to be renewed at all. A 
currant bush, once planted, should care for itself and 
last indefinitely or at least as long as an apple-tree. That 
is just what the plant ordinarily does under the conditions 
to which the farmer too often subjects it. It looks out for 
itself, devoting little energy to the production of a high 
grade of fruit. 

So, also, with good care, liberal fertilizing and frequent 
renewing, bushes may be kept in a profitable condition 
for many years. Practical growers, however, seem to 
find it advisable to replant after eight or ten years of 
service. The cost of replanting is light, and the advantage 
of young and vigorous plants will more than repay it. 
If one desires to rejuvenate old bushes in the home-garden, 
cutting them off close to the ground and working manure 
into the soil will infuse new life into them. 

HARDINESS 

Ability to endure cold hardly enters into consideration 
with the currant. It endures the most severe winters, 
in the extreme northern limits of the United States at 
least, and comes out in spring with every bud unharmed. 
The question of hardiness here centers not on resistance 
to cold, but on ability to endure heat. In this it fails, 
as already shown by its distribution and its more or less 
complete failure in warm climates. 



Yield 279 



YIELD 

Perhaps no fruit grown varies more in yield than does 
the currant. This is largely owing to the fact that it 
will grow and produce something under almost any kind 
of treatment. The average yield for the United States 
in 1909, according to census figures was only a little more 
than forty bushels to the acre. Yet there are growers who 
report as high as 250 bushels. With good care they ought 
to yield from 100 to 150 bushels an acre. It should be 
remembered that there are many drawbacks to the pro- 
duction of all kinds of fruit. . While such yields may seem 
easy to obtain, when compared with the exceptional 
ones occasionally reported, it will be found that only by 
high culture and careful attention to details will even 
these yields be reached. In garden culture, from two to 
•four pounds per bush may be expected. As instances of 
exceptional yields, five and one-half tons from one and one- 
fourth acres, or 220 bushels to the acre, have been re- 
ported from the Hudson River valley, six quarts to a 
bush, or 320 bushels to the acre from Ohio, and sixteen 
tons from three acres from Wisconsin. Let no one mis- 
take these for probable yields, in forming estimates of 
the results likely to follow prospective planting. Such 
yields tend to awaken enthusiasm on the part of the 
novice, but while the currant is one of the most produc- 
tive of the small fruits, such returns are seldom secured 
on a commercial scale. 



280 Bush-Fruits 

PKOFITS 

Profits vary greatly, not only with methods of culture, 
but also with conditions of the market. At times they 
have proved unprofitable; and again they have yielded 
large returns, but this fluctuation is no greater than with 
other fruit. Indeed there is reason to think that produc- 
tion varies less than with many other fruits. Under some 
conditions they have proved more profitable than straw- 
berries or raspberries. To' the skillful grower who is 
near a market or has good facilities for shipping, the 
currant will prove profitable. To the ordinary farmer, 
unaccustomed to their care, and remote from market, 
they will prove unprofitable. At six cents a pound or 
eight cents a quart, they should prove a satisfactory crop. 
Canning factories use them in large quantities at about 
four cents a pound. They weigh about forty pounds to 
a bushel, making this equivalent to $1.60 a bushel. This, 
with a convenient location and good culture, to insure a 
yield of not less than one hundred bushels an acre, will 
yield a fair return, if pickers can be had in sufficient num- 
bers, so that enough can be grown to make it an object. 

BLACK CUERANTS 

The treatment of the black currant does not differ ma- 
terially from that of the red. The bushes grow a little 
taller, and may require a little more room. This can be 
easily given, for in most localities one bush will supply 
the demand of the entire community. A convenient 
method of pruning the black currant is quoted from the 
Garden by the Canadian Horticulturist, 1896, page 198. 



Black Currants 281 

It consists in cutting out the bearing branches when the 
fruit is ripe, carrying them to a shady place and there 
picking the fruit at ease. The annual renewing thus given 
is said to produce well-ripened wood and fine fruit, since 
fruit borne on old wood is much inferior. 

Notwithstanding the lack of popularity of the black 
currant in America, we might do well to cultivate it more 
than we do. It undoubtedly possesses more value than 
we accord to it. It is said that if the fruit is scalded 
for a few minutes in boiling water, then put into fresh 
water for cooking, the peculiar flavor of the skin will be 
wholly removed, and that when canned it is much like 
cranberry sauce in flavor and color. The fruit is credited 
with some medicinal qualities, especially in alleviating 
inflammation or soreness of the throat. Jelly from the 
fruit, mingled with water, or the parts of the plant steeped, 
are said to be useful in bowel and summer Complaints. 
Persons accustomed to its use certainly relish it, especially 
for jam and jelly. 

Fuller states that the people of Siberia use the leaves 
for making a drink the same as we use tea. Loudon says 
that the dried leaves so much resemble green tea in flavor 
that a very small portion of them added to black tea will 
communicate that flavor so effectually as to completely 
deceive the taste. From Loudon's statements it appears 
that the fruit, either dried or in the form of jam or jelly, 
is very widely used throughout Europe against affections 
of the throat. 



CHAPTER XII 

GOOSEBERRIES 

The gooseberry is one of the lesser of the small-fruits of 
the United States. It is apparently prized and appreciated 
less than almost any other fruit. It is extremely sour, 
and the custom of using it only in the green state prevents 
some of its qualities from becoming known. Many persons 
do not care for it, and the demand is much less than for 
the berry fruits, while the supply is often more than cor- 
respondingly less. In spite of this apparent indifference, 
it has many good qualities to commend it. In the green 
state, as generally sold, it bears shipment exceedingly 
well, reaching the consumer, when properly handled, with 
no waste, and in as good condition as when it left the 
plants. 

The total area devoted to gooseberry culture in the 
United States in 1909, according to the census report, was 
4,765 acres. This was nearly 2,000 acres less than ten 
years before^ when the amount reported was 6,752 acres. 
New England, and the Mountain divisions show an in- 
crease, all others a decrease, though in the Middle Atlantic 
section it is so slight as to be negligible. The East North 
Central division leads, with 1,482 acres in 1909. This is 
closely followed by the West North Central division, with 
1,232 acres. It outranks the currant in the South At- 
lantic and East South Central divisions, but falls behind 

282 - 



Soil and Location 283 

it in the West South Central section. The total produc- 
tion is placed at 5,282,483 quarts, valued at $417,034, 
an average price of nearly eight cents a quart. 

Like the currant, the gooseberry is a northern plant, 
and refuses to be content in a hot climate. It fails in the 
southern states and almost completely along the Gulf 
coast. In Nebraska it seems to thrive better than the 
currant. Its leaves fall early, and the fruit is decidedly 
smaller than in the eastern states, but the plants make a 
good growth, appear healthy, except in the early loss of 
leaves, and are fairly productive. The English varieties 
produce an occasional fruit, but so far as tested may be 
termed an utter failure. It should be remembered that 
the summers on the plains are hot and dry, consequently 
unfavorable to these fruits. Frequently, however, the 
early part of the season is favorable, so that the fruit 
has an opportunity to mature before severe heat and 
drought affect it. The chief injury in that case is un- 
doubtedly due to the early loss of leaves and consequent 
enfeebled condition of the bush the succeeding year. 

SOIL AND LOCATION 

The gooseberry is much like the currant in its soil de- 
mands. A cool, moist, strong and rich soil, deeply worked, 
is the requisition which it makes. The more unfavorable 
the location in the way of climate, the more closely will 
this demand in the way of soil need to be met. Well to 
the north, in high altitudes, or cool northern exposures, 
it will succeed well on sandy or even gravelly loam, though 
the rule is that the lighter the soil the less satisfactory 



284 Bush-Fruits 

the crop. However, the opposite extreme is not advisable. 
A muck soil will produce a strong growth but diminished 
productiveness, while a heavy, cold clay is hard to work, 
and may cause the bushes to heave. A strong clay loam, 
not liable to injury from drought, but well drained, well 
enriched, deeply worked and subsoiled, is the ideal. A 
cool northern exposure is desirable, if it can be had. Par- 
tial shade may be an advantage, but the plant does not 
appear to thrive under the shade of trees as well as the 
currant. For home use, the north side of a fence or of 
buildings is a good location. Proper selections of soil 
and location will do much to preserve a healthy condition 
of the bush, retain the foliage and prevent mildew. 

FERTILIZERS 

Growers of long experience agree that no fertilizer is 
better for gooseberries than good cow manure, liberally 
applied. The plants are gross feeders, and a heavy top- 
dressing every autumn will be profitably utilized. This 
may be supplemented with a dressing of wood-ashes, or 
other chemicals, early in spring, if the supply of stable- 
manure has been limited. The soil must be rich, to insure 
good results. 

PROPAGATION 

The propagation of the gooseberry is similar to that of 
the currant, though it does not root so readily from cut- 
tings. The wood does not mature as early in the fall as 
that of the currant, so that planting is oftener delayed 
until spring, though the cuttings may well be taken in fall, 



Propagation 285 

and be buried outside or placed in a cellar for winter, as 
directed for currants. If left until spring, they must be 
taken very early, as they push into growth at the first 
touch of warm weather. Cuttings are made from six to 
ten inches long, using only well-ripened wood of the cur- 
rent season's growth. Formerly the lower buds were 
cut out before planting, in order to prevent suckers from 
springing up, thus securing a, tree form of growth. This 
is no longer followed in commercial growing, though it 
may be desirable where attractive bushes are wanted for 
the garden. The soil should be pressed firmly about the 
base in planting, and only one or two buds be left above 
the surface of the ground. Thorough mulching is impera- 
tive, if the cuttings are planted in the fall. 

Some varieties, like Houghton, root readily from cut- 
tings, but Downing and other strong, vigorous growers 
do not, consequently layering is oftener used. It is gener- 
ally believed that stockier and better plants are obtained 
from cuttings. Bent layers root readily, but this is too 
slow, and the number of plants produced is too small for 
commercial work. Mound-layering is the method gener- 
ally followed. For this purpose the plants are cut back 
severely in autumn, to induce many shoots to grow the 
succeeding spring. About July 1, when these have made 
their principal growth, earth is mounded up about and 
among them, leaving only their tips exposed. American 
varieties will root readily, and may be removed the same 
autumn, but English varieties are left in this position for 
two seasons. The last of October, or before the ground 
freezes, the soil is thrown back, and the shoots are cut 
away and trenched or buried in the cellar for spring 



286 Bush-Fruits 

planting. In commercial work two grades are commonly 
made. In spring they are planted in nursery rows and 
cultivated for one year, when they are ready to go on the 
market. Some roots will have formed during the process 
of layering, and the plants will be in condition to make 
a much better growth when planted out than cuttings 
taken without previous layering. 

Spring is a busy season with the nurseryman and 
fruit-grower, and the gooseberry is very impatient at the 
approach of warm weather. For this reason the layers 
are often planted in nursery rows when removed from 
the parent plants in fall, and mulched during winter. 
In favorable climates this will prove satisfactory, but 
where the winters are dry and open, as on the plains, 
the loss of plants is likely to be large, unless they are wholly 
covered with earth. If bushes are to be managed princi- 
pally or exclusively for the production of plants, they 
should be set in rows eight feet apart and close together 
in the row. This will facilitate the work of mounding 
and removing the soil in layering, as much of it can be 
done with a plow. 

For home use, the suckers which spring up about the 
base of the old plants may be removed and planted. They 
commonly have some roots attached, and grow readily. 
The older writers warn us against their use, but apparently, 
for the reason that they, too, are likely to throw up suckers 
from the roots. When the fashion was to grow the plants 
only in tree form this was considered a serious fault. Bent 
layers may be employed in a small way. By this method, 
the branches are held beneath the soil by a forked peg 
and the tip allowed to grow upward. A slit is made on 



Propagation 287 ' 

the under side of the arched portion which is buried in the 
ground, to induce more rapid rooting, by checking in 
some degree the flow of sap from the parent plant. Layer- 
ing the tips, like black raspberries, is also said to succeed, 
though not a common method. 

A writer in the "Gardener's Monthly" for 1885, p. 49, 
says that the readiest and quickest way to propagate 
the English gooseberry is by pieces of its own roots. Old 
bushes are dug up in spring, the roots chopped in pieces 
three to four inches long, and planted in nursery rows 
three or four inches deep. He says that they will grow 
more in one year than a cutting will in two or three. This 
method is certainly not in common use. Two trials in the 
greenhouse early in spring, embracing both English and 
American varieties, resulted in complete failure. 

New varieties must come from seeds, which should be 
treated as directed for currants. It is not difficult to grow 
plants by this method. There is likely to be little retro- 
gression, and in rare cases there may be an advance in 
valuable qualities. A French article which appeared in 
the Horticulturist in 1849, translated from the Revue 
Horticole, states that seedlings withstand the heat of 
French summers much better than cuttings, and recom- 
mends propagation by seeds rather than by other methods 
for that climate. 

Grafting is easily performed, the Missouri currant being 
the stock oftenest used. According to Robert Man- 
ning, 1 the best results are obtained by side-grafting under 
the bark in August, the top being cut down in spring and 
the snag removed afterward, as with budded trees. Al- 
1 Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1879: 37. 



288 Bush-Fruits 

though quite extensively practiced at one time in the pro- 
duction of standard bushes, and as a supposed remedy 
for the mildew, the fad soon died out. 

PLANTING 

The methods of planting recommended for the currant 
are equally applicable to the gooseberry. If rows are 
placed six feet apart in the direction most convenient for 
cultivating, and the plants four feet apart in the opposite 
direction, in order to afford opportunity for cross cultiva- 
tion when the plants are young, and at intervals thereafter, 
they will have room enough for proper development, 
with convenient space for their care and for gathering the 
fruit. 

The same arguments as with the currant will apply 
to the choice of season for planting. These fruits drop 
their leaves so early that fall planting may be done much 
earlier than with most other fruits, even in September, 
allowing the plants to become well established before the 
advent of cold weather. This is one of the hardiest fruits, 
but the grower who withholds the proper care in planting 
will inevitably reap the recompense for his neglect. 

AFTER TREATMENT 

Since the gooseberry is subject to greater injury from 
drought than the currant, there is the more urgent need 
of complete and thorough cultivation. As with the cur- 
rant, it should be shallow but frequent. Hardness and 
dryness of the soil are especially injurious. The better 



Pruning 289 

the cultivation, the cooler and moister can the soil be 
kept, and hence the nearer will be the approach to the 
normal conditions under which the plant thrives. Like 
the proper selection of soil and location, suitable cultiva- 
tion will materially aid in preserving the health of the 
plants and preventing mildew, though by no means a 
remedy for that disease. Mulching also succeeds well, 
preserving the soil in a cool and moist condition even 
better than cultivation. Deep tillage must be carefully 
avoided. Disturbing the roots is likely to cause imper- 
fect setting or subsequent dropping of the fruit. Both the 
groselles and especially the gooseberry, are very sensitive 
to root conditions. An untimely and improper cultiva- 
tion may practically destroy the crop. Allowing the soil 
to go without mulching or tillage is also injurious if the 
surface becomes dry and hard. 

PRUNING 

Left to itself, the gooseberry soon becomes a tangled 
thicket, the fruit in consequence being small and difficult 
to pick. It produces much more wood than ought to re- 
main for each year's fruiting. This must be reduced, if 
the best results are to be secured. The particular manner 
in which it is performed is of far less importance. Berries 
are produced from all parts of the bush except the present 
year shoots and the very old wood, but the finest fruits 
are borne on one-year-old branches. After two or three 
years in bearing the wood begins to fail, and the fruit 
borne from it likewise declines. The principle, therefore, 
should be to carefully guard the vigorous young wood, 



290 Bush-Fruits 

allowing it to replace that which is older before the latter 
has a chance to fail. The weak young shoots should be cut 
away, or perhaps be cut back to two or three buds, if the 
bush is still thin. The vigorous ones may be moderately 
cut back, and as much old wood cut away as can be spared 
without interfering with the productiveness of the bush. 

Benj. G. Smith states * that he prunes as carefully as he 
does grape vines, some on the spur system and some with 
long shoots, with equal success. This is significant, in 
showing that the method is of minor importance. The es- 
sential thing is to so renew that the bearing wood shall al- 
ways be strong and vigorous, and the amount of such wood 
not greater than the bush is able to support and fill 
with well-developed fruit. In northern localities an open 
top is desirable, but where the summers are hot a thicker 
growth, with more shade, may be better. Shortening- 
back the lower branches severely will aid in keeping the 
fruit up from the ground. 

In the tree form of pruning, from six to ten main 
branches are allowed to grow, and all suckers are cut away. 
These main branches may be allowed to divide as the bush 
gets older. They are annually shortened to a few inches of 
new growth and the side shoots cut back to from one to 
four buds. 

In practical culture, thinning is all done by the amount 
of wood removed. In the production of prize berries, as 
practiced by English growers, thinning is an absolute 
necessity. The largest fruit can only be produced by 
closely limiting the number which the plant is allowed to 
carry. Thinning is no less important in commercial work, 
1 Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1883: 123. 



Gathering and Marketing 291 

because done by removing wood, instead of individual 
fruits. It is well to keep this fact in mind in all prun- 
ing operations. 

Various methods of training have been reported. In 
some cases they have been trained as single stems and tied 
to stakes; in others they have been made to cover arbors 
by carefully training up shoots at given distances apart. 
Some very remarkable bushes have been reported. In 
the tree form they have been said to reach a height of 
sixteen feet, and others have been trained as standards 
with clear stems five feet high. In the " Transactions of 
the London Horticultural Society," Vol. V, p. 490, a plant 
is reported which was forty-six years old, measuring 
twelve yards in circumference and which had produced 
several pecks of fruit annually for thirty years. Another, 
thirty years old, was trained to a building, and measured 
53 feet 4 inches from one extremity to the other. This 
bore four or five pecks of fruit annually. 

GATHERING AND MARKETING 

Picking gooseberries is difficult on account of the thorns. 
The Downing, our best well-tested variety, is one of the 
worst in this respect. This feature does much to check 
increased cultivation of the gooseberry. Vigorous pruning, 
to keep the bushes thin and open, will materially aid in 
the matter, and the picker soon learns to avoid too careless 
contact. Another method of circumventing the difficulty 
is possible, from the fact that the berries are marketed when 
green and hard. This consists in wearing thick leather 
gloves and in stripping the berries from the branches. 



292 Bush-Fruits 

They are then run through a fanning mill to drive 
out the leaves. This method is most satisfactory in com- 
mercial work. It will not answer for ripe fruit, which is too 
easily crushed. Pickers are paid about l^ cents a quart, 
and will average from sixty to one hundred quarts a day. 

Some growers cut away the older stalks, which should 
come out the following spring, picking the fruit after re- 
moving them from the plant. Some fruit is usually pulled 
off in doing this and not much is gained by it except 
that the work may be conducted in a more comfortable 
place. It may help the busy housewife who has fruit to 
pick from her own garden, on a hot day, or suggest a 
way whereby the gardener himself may help. 

At the present time the market calls for green goose- 
berries only. In this stage the fruit will carry almost 
any distance in first-class condition. Ten-pound grape 
baskets are excellent for shipping and general market 
purposes, though the quart berry baskets are still much 
used. It is a pleasure to pack this fruit for shipment. 
It is so clean and solid, and there is a feeling of security 
that it will remain so until it reaches the consumer. 

The gooseberry, even more than the currant, seems to 
have fallen into general disrepute. This may be partly 
due to the fact that the housewife often thinks that she 
must snip off the stem and dried blossom of every fruit 
before it goes into the cooking dish. This is a tiresome task, 
and she may well be pardoned for not wanting to care 
for many of them. To try to convince her that this opera- 
tion might be omitted is probably useless. 

A few quarts may be sold to a family here and there, 
but even the larger towns and cities seem to demand but 



Uses 293 

few. If varieties with larger fruit, such as is commonly 
grown in England, could be successfully grown in our 
climate, the outlet would doubtless be better. 

USES 

The fruit is commonly used in pies, stewed, canned, 
or for jelly. That it makes a good jelly is evidenced by 
an ingenious process of imitating it reported by the " Gar- 
dener's Monthly" for 1884, page 204. This states that 
gooseberry jelly is made from seaweed, the color being 
given by fuchsine or similar material, and the flavor 
by a mixture of acetic ether, tartaric acid and other 
substances. 

The good qualities of the gooseberry are not confined 
to the green state. The flavor of a well-ripened goose- 
berry is scarcely to be surpassed among fruits. Its value 
should be better appreciated. It is especially good to be 
eaten out of hand, as it comes from the bush. It also makes 
a fine table fruit when fully ripe, if crushed or cut and 
eaten with sugar, or sugar and cream. Unfortunately 
the acidity of the skin does not disappear with ripening. 
Indeed, when cooked, the ripe fruit is even more sour than 
the unripe. This makes it undesirable for most cooking 
purposes except in the green state. 

T. H. Hoskins is authority for the statement x that ripe 
Houghtons are an excellent substitute for cranberries, 
as a sauce for meat. They are cooked enough to burst 
the skins, then put up in fruit cans, but not sweetened 
till wanted for use. Since they are much cheaper than 
1 Rept. Michigan Hort. Soc. 1884: 262. 



294 Bush-Fruits 

cranberries, and can be grown anywhere, this method of 
using them is worth remembering. We too often look 
to the market for the products of distant points and fail 
to fully utilize those from our own gardens. 

A method of keeping green gooseberries which seems 
to have been in vogue before the process of canning was 
known, consists in filling a jug or bottle with sound fruit, 
taking care that no bruised or crushed ones go in, then 
filling with cold spring or well water, corking tightly and 
putting away in a cool cellar. Hoskins states that they 
can be so preserved perfectly the year round, without 
sealing, though it is generally recommended to seal them. 
This method is certainly simple and, if as satisfactory as it 
is said to be, makes fresh gooseberry pie available at all 
seasons of the year. Another method of keeping, recom- 
mended by the "Prairie Farmer," is to put them into 
bottles when perfectly dry, then cork the bottles tight, 
cover the corks with sealing wax, and partially cover the 
bottles with sand or earth in the cellar. 

DURATION OF PLANTATIONS 

In the older method of pruning to tree form, the plants 
began to fail after six or eight years, and soon became un- 
profitable, generally bearing their best fruit about the 
fourth or fifth year from planting. In bush training, they 
remain in vigorous condition much longer. Plantations 
twenty or twenty-five years old, and still profitable, are 
not uncommon. Much depends on the thoroughness 
with which the renewing process is carried on. Liberal 
fertilizing and good culture will also aid greatly. Gener- 



Yield 295 

ally it will be found more profitable to discard them after 
ten or twelve years. Replanting is not expensive, and the 
younger plants will be more vigorous and bear finer fruit. 
A slight difference in the quantity and quality of crops 
will soon offset the cost of replanting. No rule as to 
number of years can be valid, for of two plantations of 
the same age, one may still be perfectly satisfactory and 
the other wholly unprofitable, owing to differences in 
treatment and conditions. In commercial work, a safe 
rule will be to replant as soon as the first trace of waning 
vigor can be detected. It is not a question of how long 
they will continue to bear well, but of which will prove 
the more profitable, the old planting, with its regular care, 
or a new one, with the added expense of another planting. 
If these points were carefully weighed, replanting would 
doubtless be much more frequent than it now is. 

HARDINESS 

Cold has apparently no effect on the gooseberry, at 
least such temperatures as are likely to be reached any- 
where in the United States, and even far to the north. 
It stands unprotected through our severest winters with- 
out the loss of a bud, but if moved southward it soon be- 
comes uncomfortable. It cannot endure scorching sum- 
mer suns. 

YIELD 

Full grown plants, vigorous and well cared for, ought 
to yield from five to eight quarts to the plant, or, roughly 
speaking, from 300 to 500 bushels to the acre, with plants 



296 Bush-Fruits 

four by six feet apart. One-half bushel to a plant, set at 
this distance, has been reported from Canada. This is 
exceptional, and should not be considered as a basis for 
estimates. At the Geneva, New York, Experiment Sta- 
tion, in 1891, * plants gave an average of over ten pounds 
of fruit each, or about eight quarts. This would make 
about 450 bushels to the acre with plants set four by six 
feet apart. Fuller 2 says that from 200 to 400 bushels 
to the acre of native sorts can be grown. The average 
yield for the United States as a whole, as deduced from the 
figures for acreage and total production given in the 1910 
census, is only 35 bushels to the acre. The reader may 
make his own contrasts and draw his own conclusions. 

PROFITS 

When the market is at hand the gooseberry is one of 
the most reliable and generally one of the most profitable 
small-fruits grown. The price a quart is not high, but the 
yield is large and the loss little. The average price in the 
New York market seems to be about $2 a bushel, though 
fine fruit sometimes reaches double that price. 

Of all small-fruits the gooseberry is the one best adapted 
to long-distance shipments. If a large city market can 
be reached without too great cost it may pay well to do it. 
In some localities the home market is doubtless worth 
cultivating. Attempting to educate the public is gener- 
ally a thankless task, but if persons could be taught to 
use the ripe fruit as well as the green, the consumption 
of the gooseberry would be greatly increased. 

1 Annual Rept. 1891: 474. 

2 Small Fruit Culturist, p. 222. 



English Gooseberries 297 



ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES 

Although frequent mention has been made of the English 
varieties, it may be well to say a word further regarding 
their culture in the United States. Like all European 
fruits, they have been tried again and again, yet they 
have only succeeded here and there, when meeting pe- 
culiarly favorable conditions. Benj. G. Smith, of Cam- 
bridge, successfully cultivated them for years, and oc- 
casionally other growers have succeeded, but the general 
fact remains that the English gooseberry is not a success 
in America. It may produce a few good berries when 
young, but is almost sure to fail later. It is said to thrive 
well on the northwest coast where the climate is more 
like that of England. In 1884, a motion was made at the 
meeting of the American Pomological Society to strike 
all English varieties from their list, but it was barely lost. 

The reason for this failure of the large and fine English 
gooseberries in the United States is that they are constantly 
attacked by mildew. Any number of remedies have been 
suggested against the mildew in times past, the most 
common practice being to mulch the ground with manure, 
stones, tin cans, old boots, or other strange material which 
might be thought to possess especial virtue. Salt applied 
to the soil was vainly tried, and at one time grafting the 
plants on the Missouri currant was thought to be a remedy. 
Any of these things which afford a nearer approach toward 
the ideal conditions demanded by the gooseberry will aid 
in preventing the mildew, but none of them is infallible. 
Yet recent experiments show that under favorable con- 



298 Bush-Fruits 

ditions we can grow the English gooseberry by giving 
it the proper attention. Thorough and vigorous treatment 
with potassium sulfide or with Bordeaux mixture, as 
directed under the discussion of this disease, will hold it 
in check and admit of satisfactory crops being obtained. 
No slovenly or careless work will answer; the treatment 
must be thorough, and done at the right time, or the enemy 
will still gain the mastery. 

Whether the English gooseberries are worth growing, 
especially for home use, is a fair question. Their only 
advantage is in their size and appearance, which of course 
commend them for market growing. Most varieties are 
inferior to our own in quality. Many kinds have been 
grown at the Geneva, N. Y., Experiment Station and 
under their methods and soil conditions some of them 
are found successful. Mildew has, for some reason, 
been less troublesome in recent years than formerly. 

Just why the gooseberry is so much more popular with 
the English than with us is hard to explain. Although 
their varieties surpass ours in size, they do not in quality. 
If we prized them as highly as the English we should 
doubtless have made more progress in improving our own 
varieties. The reader will find another account of goose- 
berries, by Beach, in Bulletin 114, New York Experi- 
ment Station. 



CHAPTER XIII 

VARIETIES OF CURRANTS 

The currant culture of the United States is largely 
founded upon the European species bearing the name 
Ribes vulgar e, Lam., although almost universally known 
heretofore as R. rubrum (Fig. 40). The latter name is now 
-applied to the northern red currant found chiefly in north- 
ern Europe and Asia, which is rare in cultivation. The 
two species differ in a few minor botanical characteristics. 
The larger-leaved and large-fruited type known as " cherry 
currants" is recognized under the botanical name Ribes 
vulgare var. macrocarpum. 

In its wild state the garden currant is a northern plant, 
chiefly found in cool damp locations, and it thrives best 
under similar conditions in garden culture. In cultivation, 
it has become somewhat variable in character of fruit and 
foliage. Instances are reported 1 in which both red and 
white fruits have been produced upon the same branch. 
In one case 2 three red, three white and one striped fruit 
were found in the same cluster. The red currant of north- 
ern North America, formerly confused with the garden 
currant seems to be the swamp red currant, now known as 
R. triste, Pall. 

The European black currant belongs to the species Ribes 

1 Darwin, Animals and Plants under Domestication, 1 : 400. 

2 Gardener's Chronicle, 26: 268. 

299 



300 



Bush-Fruits 




Fig. 40. Ribes vulgare (XVs). 

nigrum, Linn. (Fig. 41). This species, like the red cur- 
rants, readily adapts itself to American conditions, but the 
American people have not so readily adapted their tastes 
to its peculiar flavor. It has never become a popular fruit 
in the United States. 

The American black currant, Ribes americanum, Mill., 
formerly known as R. floridum, seems to possess all the 



Varieties of Currants 



301 




good qualities of the Euro- 
pean plant and is more or- 
namental. In recent years 
this species has received some 
attention from plant- 
breeders, notably 
Hansen of South 
Dakota, in his effort 
to breed hardier 
fruits for the North- 
west. It cannot yet 
be considered a po- 
mological species. 

An American 
black currant of- 
tener seen in culti- 
vation is the Mis- 
souri or flowering 
currant, now given 
the botanical name 
R. odoratum, Wendl., but much 
better known under the errone- 
ous name R. aureum. This is 
native to the eastern slopes of 
the Rocky Mountains. The 
better-known name R. aureum 
is now confined to a smaller- Fi s- 41. Ribes nigrum (X 2 /0. 
flowered species more commonly found west of the Rocky 
Mountains. The fruit of this black currant is very differ- 
ent from that of the two preceding species. It is often 
large, but produced in few-flowered clusters, and ripens 



302 Bush-Fruits 

singly so that it must be picked one by one. Its flavor, 
though peculiar, has not the mawkish twang of the true 
black currants, but is not sprightly enough to make it a 
good culinary fruit. A form bearing large berries is 
sometimes offered under the variety name of Crandall. 

Several species possess ornamental qualities of value; 
these are discussed later. 

HISTOEY OF THE CULTIVATED CURRANT 

The currant is thought to have been unknown to the 
Greeks and Romans, as no mention of it is found in any 
of their writings. It seems to have first come prominently 
into cultivation about the middle of the sixteenth century, 
and according to Sturtevant, 1 received its modern im- 
proved form within fifty years following. The early 
English names "corans" and "currans" are thought to 
have been derived from the resemblance of the fruit to the 
little Corinth grapes or raisins, these in turn taking their 
names from Corinth. In England, at times, currants were 
known as "red gooseberries" and "beyond-sea goose- 
berries." An equivalent to the latter name, "groseilles 
d'outre mer," was also applied to them in France. These 
names indicate that, if not native to these countries, the 
cultivated forms, at least, were received from elsewhere. 
The Dutch name "over-zee" indicates the same thing. 
Sturtevant thinks that the currant was first brought into 
culture from the northern countries through the Danes 
and Normans, though DeCandolle appears to doubt this. 2 

1 History of the Currant, Trans. Western New York Hort. Soc, 
1887: 55. 

2 Origin of Cultivated Plants, 277. 



History of the Cultivated Currant 303 

The greatest improvement, however, seems to have been 
in the low countries. 

All the principal types of the cultivated currants are 
found in the wild plants, and were reported at an early- 
date. Improvement has only been within a limited 
range. Culture and fertility often appear to have a greater 
influence on this fruit than parentage. Thos. Andrew 
Knight x was of the opinion that by repeated growth 
from seed the currant would become sweeter, and perhaps 
in time, even insipid. The majority of seedlings grown 
by him from white crossed by red currants were red, but 
many first turned a color similar to the White Dutch, and 
then became brighter in color when ripe. He expressed 
himself as surprised at the range of variation which ap- 
peared, it being much greater than he had expected. 
Nearly all were mild and sweeter than the red parents, 
some were insipid, and some even showed a medicinal 
flavor. Experience does not seem to bear out his expecta- 
tions in regard to an increasing sweetness, as the newer 
varieties are many of them more acid than older ones. 

Currant seedlings appear not to vary widely as a rule 
and show little tendency to reversion, though one writer 
has reported that seedlings of Fay are generally smaller 
than the parent and that nearly half of them were white. 
Perhaps through its long sojourn in the low countries 
the currant has inherited something of the staid Dutch 
qualities of the inhabitants, and does not readily depart 
from long established customs. Yet no fruit, however 
stable, can long resist the influences of persistent and sys- 
tematic breeding, and the currant has received too little 
1 Trans. London Hort. Soc. 3: 86. 



304 Bush-Fruits 

attention in this line. There is no need that the currant 
should depart widely from the present types, for there is 
nothing wrong with them. A steady improvement along 
these same lines, with perhaps a limited reduction in 
acidity, is all that is needed, and there is no reason why 
this should not go on as long as horticulture exists. 

The lists in this chapter and the next are intended to 
catalogue all the varieties of currants and gooseberries 
which have become prominent in this country up to the 
close of 1916. 

RED AND WHITE CURRANTS 

(Ribes vulgare) 

Attractor. — A variety from France. Fruit medium to large, 
yellowish white. Bunches short. 

Berlin Seedling. — 'Appears in the catalogue of the American 
Pomological Society for 1869. 

Boston Lady. — A white variety. — Gar. Month. 1860: 250. 

Bronze. — Mentioned in Hovey's Magazine for 1861, p. 101. 

Buist Long-bunched. — Originated by Robert Buist of Philadelphia, 
Pa. Fruit similar to Red Dutch in flavor. Bunches long and taper- 
ing. Leaves large and very thick. 

Caywood Seedling. — A seedling received at the Geneva (N. Y.) 
Experiment Station from A. J. Caywood & Son, of Marlboro, N. Y. 
Described as a moderate grower, with spreading or drooping 
branches, very productive. Fruit more acid than the White Grape, 
of good quality, attractive, translucent, tinged with pale greenish 
yellow. Bunches of medium size, about two and one-half inches 
long. Berries large. 

Champagne (Pheasant's Eye, Groseillier a Fruit Couleur de Chair). 
— Of foreign origin. Fruit large, acid, delicate reddish pink, like a 
cross between the red and white, though the wood, foliage, and 
growth place it among the reds. 

Champion. — A white variety, with berries a shade lighter than 





P IxllHuV 






r 


. . fWSn^F' 




x tJyfev ' • * MbxSL- 






3i'Z%fWtm 






Plate XI. Two good currants. — Chautauqua above; Diploma below. 



Red and White Currants 305 

White Dutch and inferior to it in appearance, flavor, and quality. — 
Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 95: 427. 

Chautauqua (Climbing). — Found in the woods by R. F. Lonnen, 
Mayville, N. Y., about 1893. Introduced by The Curtice Nursery 
Company about 1902. Plants large, vigorous, upright-spreading, 
healthy and very productive. Stems unusually long, free from berries 
at the base. Fruit of good size, light red, of high quality, and hanging 
well after ripening. One of the most promising varieties at the 
Geneva, N. Y., Experiment Station. The tall spreading growth of 
the plants led to its being introduced as a climbing currant. It 
can be trained to a trellis if desired. Plate XL 

Cherry. — Obtained from Italy by M. Adrienne Seneclause, a dis- 
tinguished horticulturist of France. He received it among a lot of 
other currants known there under the name Ribes acerifolium. He 
gave it the name owing to the size of the fruit. It was fruited at 
the Museum of Natural History in 1843, and from the plants there 
grown was figured in the "Annales de Flore et de Pomone" for Feb. 
1844. (Roe says 1848.) It was brought to the notice of fruit- 
growers in the United States by Dr. William W. Valk, of Flushing, 
L. I., in 1846. * It was figured in the Horticulturist as a frontispiece 
to the volume for 1854; also in Hovey's Magazine, 1855, p. 425. A 
popular well-known variety largely planted both for market and 
home use. Described as vigorous, stocky, and compact when young, 
but becoming spreading with age, not suckering as freely as other 
kinds. Fruit borne in short-stemmed clusters close to the wood, 
which renders it somewhat difficult to pick. Fruit averaging large, 
though not uniformly so, juicy, and fine flavored. Color bright red. 

Comet. — A British variety so nearly like Fay as to be practically 
identical, if not the same. Said to have originated in Guernsey. 

Dana White. — A white variety raised in Massachusetts. Fuller 
says that he obtained, from what he supposed to be a reliable source 
five distinct varieties under this name. 

Diploma. — Originated by Jacob Moore of Brighton, N. Y., from 

seeds of Cherry crossed with White Grape, sown in 1885. Introduced 

by Charles A. Green in 1906. Plant vigorous, upright, productive, 

bearing long clusters. Fruit light red, more transparent than other 

1 Horticulturist, 1:439. 



306 Bush-Fruits 

red varieties, seeds large and numerous, flavor mild. Fruit juicy, 
demanding careful handling. Plate XI. 

Dr. Brete. — A French variety imported and cultivated by William 
S. Carpenter. Illustrated with a full page engraving in the Horticul- 
turist for 1870, p. 45. 

Eclipse. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station 
from H. S. Anderson, of Union Springs, N. Y. Described as vig- 
orous, upright, with bunches of medium length. Fruit varying in 
size, with heavy juice, good for jellies. 

Empire. — Reported as lacking hardiness and productiveness at 
the Virginia Experiment Station. Fruit large, bright ruby-red but 
stems short. 

Fay. — Said to be a seedling of Cherry or Victoria, which originated 
in 1868 with Lincoln Fay, in Chautauqua county, N. Y. It was 
introduced about 1883. Vigorous, though somewhat spreading, with 
the lower branches often trailing on the ground. Clusters long, with 
a good stem between the branch and the fruit, making it easy to 
gather. Fruit varying from medium to large, uniform in size, of 
good quality, darker than Red Dutch. 

Filler. — Originated in Ulster County, N. Y. A favorite about 
Marlboro, N. Y. Described as a strong grower but with a very 
sprawling growth, many branches lying on the ground. Clusters 
compact and large, easy to pick but hanging well on the bushes. 
Fruit large, attractive and rich; plant productive. Believed by some 
to be the same as Fay. It is offered by W. N. Scarff of Ohio under 
the name Scarff. 

Franco-German. — Healthy, productive, bearing very large clusters 
and holding its fruit late in the fall. 

Gloire de Sablons. — Fruit small, white, striped or splashed with 
red. 

Gloucester Red. Described in Tilton's Journal of Horticulture for 
1871, p. 188. 

Gondoin Red (Red Provence). — Said to have been named from 
the town in France where it originated. By some this is regarded 
as the same as Red Provence, and is apparently mentioned by Prince 
under this name in the Horticulturist, Vol. 2, p. 266. In the Gar- 
dener's Monthly for 1876, p. 209, the editor, Thomas Meehan, 



Red and White Currants 307 

mentions Raby' Castle, May's Victoria, and Imperiale Rouge as 
synonyms. 

Holland (Long-Bunched Holland) (Long-Bunched Red [?], Red 
Dutch Long-Bunched [?]).— A popular variety in many parts of the 
West. Described as an upright grower, the young wood reddish in 
color; productive; ripening late, somewhat resembling Victoria. 
Retains its foliage and fruit later in the season than most vari- 
eties. 

Imperial Yellow (Imperiale Jaune, White Imperial). — Said to be 
practically identical with White Grape. 

Indiana. — Introduced by J. E. Shideler, of Indianapolis, Ind. 

Knight Early Red. — A variety originated by Thomas Andrew 
Knight, of England. 

Knight Large Red.— Another of Mr. Knight's seedlings. Described 
as large, bright red, bunches large, and productive. 

Knight Sweet Red. — Described as large, dark red, bunch long, 
tapering. Similar in quality to the Red Dutch. 

La Hative (Hative de Bertin, La Fertile). — A French variety 
mentioned by Downing as a failure. In the Gardener's Monthly 
for 1876, p. 209, the editor, Thomas Meehan, gives this as a synonym 
of Red Dutch. 

Lakewood. — A new red variety on trial in Michigan. Said to be 
a good grower, but not productive. — Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118: 20. 

London Market. — Mentioned as an English variety imported in 
1878; somewhat resembling Fay, though more delicate in texture, 
with seeds large and numerous.— U. S. Dept. Agr. Rept. 1891: 395. 

London Red (Short-Bunched Red) .—Clusters with a very short 
stem. Fruit similar to Red Dutch in quality and color. — Geneva 
(N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 95: 418. 

Magnum Bonum. — Mentioned. — Horticulturist, 1854: 11. 

Marvin Seedling. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment 
Station from D. S. Marvin, of Watertown, N. Y. Described as 
moderately vigorous, and upright. Fruit one of the largest of the 
white currants. Resembles White Grape in color, but more acid. 
ControUed by J. C. Vaughan, of Chicago.— N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bull. 
95:427. 

Mills Nos. 20, 22, 28 and 29. On trial at the Geneva (N. Y.) 



308 Bush-Fruits 

Experiment Station at one time. Received from Charles Mills, of 
Fairmount, N. Y. Said to be seedlings of the Versaillaise crossed 
by Red Dutch. 

North Star. — An accidental seedling, introduced by the Jewell 
Nursery Company of Lake City, Minn. Described as vigorous, 
upright, or somewhat spreading. Bunches of medium length. Fruit 
much like Red Dutch, variable in size. 

Palluau (Fertile de Palluau). — Mentioned by Downing and Fuller 
as a French variety of vigorous, upright growth, and productive. 
Fruit large, bright red, resembling Red Dutch. Thomas Meehan l 
gives this as a synonym of Red Dutch. 

Palmer Sweet Red. — Mentioned in the Horticulturist for 1824, 
p. 161, as a fine, long-bunched, large-berried variety of vigorous 
growth, and productive. 

Perfection. — Originated by Chas. G. Hooker, Rochester, N. Y., 
in 1887, by crossing White Grape and Fay. Introduced by C. M. 
Hooker & Sons, in 1902. Intermediate between its parents in char- 
acter of plant. Fruit borne along old wood like White Grape, ex- 
celling Fay in size of both cluster and berry, large to the tip, with 
good length of stem at base. Color bright red, flavor and quality 
excellent. 

Pitmaston Sweet Red. — Mentioned in the same place as the sweet- 
est of all red currants, having short bunches, and small fruit. Said 
to have been raised by Mr. Williams, of Pitmaston. 

Pomona. — Introduced by Albertson & Hobbs, of Bridgeport, In- 
diana. Vigorous, productive; fruit medium to large, bright red, 
sweet and excellent, hanging for a long time after ripening. A de- 
pendable variety. 

Prince Albert. — Described as vigorous, more upright than Red 
Dutch, and a very heavy yielder, though a weak grower when young. 
Bunches short to medium. Fruit medium to large, rather pale 
red, of poor quality, ripening late. Profitable and popular at 
canneries. 

Purity. — Plant low-growing and sprawling. Fruit yellowish white. 

Red Cross. — Originated by Jacob Moore, of Attica, N. Y. A 
cross between Cherry and White Grape. Vigorous and upright, 
iGar. Month. 1876:209. 



Red and White Currants 309 

clusters large and easily picked; fruit medium to large, lighter, milder 
and somewhat later than Cherry. Introduced by Green's Nursery 
Company. 

Red Dutch (Large-Bunched Red, Long-Bunched Red, Morgan's 
Red, Groseillier Rouge a Grosse Fruit). — Meehan x also gives the 
following list as synonyms of this variety: Fertile, Fertile d'Angle- 
terre, Fertile de Palluau, Fertile de Bertin, La Hative, Hative de 
Bertin, Bertin No. 9, Belle de St. Gilles, Chenonceaux, Grosse Rouge 
de Boulogne, Queen Victoria, and Red Grape. One of the oldest and 
best known varieties. It is still retained by some growers in the 
West, and perhaps elsewhere. A strong grower, rather tall, upright, 
with comparatively slender shoots, productive. Fruit of fine color 
and sprightly flavor, but not large. 

Red Grape. — Mentioned by Fuller as having foliage not shining, 
as with the Red Dutch. 

Ruby. — Raised by Jacob Moore, the originator of the Brighton 
Grape, from seed of the Cherry believed to have been crossed by 
White Grape. Described as not equal to Versaillaise or Cherry in 
size, but with larger bunches and better fruit; productive. Excellent 
in some localities. 

Scarlet Gem. — Plant low-growing and coarse; fruit small, pleasant, 
pinkish white. 

Select. — Said by T. T. Lyon to lack in vigor and productiveness. — ■ 
Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118: 20. 

Short-Bunched Red. — Mentioned by Downing as much like Red 
Dutch, with shorter bunches. 

Silver-Mine. — Offered by the Gardner Nursery Company of Iowa, 
Described as prolific, large, red, of fine flavor, holding its leaves and 
fruit very late. 

Stewart ('s Seedling). — A Minnesota variety, mentioned as not 
having received its share of notice. Said to be the handsomest in 
bush and berry of any variety grown in that state. Vigorous, up- 
right, prolific and hardy. Fruit somewhat hidden by the leaves, 
large, borne in good sized bunches, remaining a long time after ripen- 
ing without injury. — Ann. Rept. Minn. Exp. Sta. 1888: 235. 

Striped Fruited (Silver Striped). — An old German variety. Men- 
1 Gar. Month. 1876:209. 



310 Bush-Fruits 

tioned by Downing and Fuller as being distinctly striped, but small, 
a poor bearer, and of no value except as a curiosity. 

Transparent (Transparent White, Transparent Blanc) . — A French 
variety mentioned by Downing and Fuller. Said to be a seedling 
of the White Grape, and to resemble that variety so closely as to be 
practically identical. 

Versaillaise (La) (Versailles, Macrocarpa, Fertile d' Angers, La 
Caucase, Caucasian). Originated by M. Bertin, of Versailles, from 
seed of the Cherry currant, and similar to that variety. This is one 
of the best known market currants, and very generally prized. 
E. P. Powell says x that the true Versaillaise is not unlike Fay in 
size and color, a rather more upright grower, with a long, fine stem, 
enormously productive. Flavor almost like Fay. 

Victoria (May's Victoria, Goliath, Raby Castle, Red Grape, 
Houghton Castle, Wilmot's Red Grape). Said to have been known 
in Hexham and New Castle as the Houghton Castle currant. Sent 
from there to Raby Castle, whence it was procured by Mr. May, of 
Learning Lane, and advertised by him as May's Victoria. One of 
the most reliable red currants known. A very strong grower, up- 
right, very productive. Foliage rather pale green. Fruit bright red, 
medium or above in size, mildly acid, late in coloring, but will keep 
on the bushes in good condition later than either Cherry or Red 
Dutch. Less liable to attacks of the currant borer than most other 
sorts. Victoria, Holland and Prince Albert seem to belong to a some- 
what distinct class, being able to retain their leaves and fruit better 
than most sorts. 

Warner's Red Grape, Warrior's Grape. — English varieties men- 
tioned in Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, Vol. 9, p. 188. Perhaps 
synonyms of other sorts. 

White Dutch (White Crystal, White Clinton, Reeves' White, 
Morgan's White, White Antwerp, White Leghorn, Clarke's Sweet, 
White Holland, White Pearl). Very similar to Red Dutch in habit. 
Bush vigorous, upright and productive. Fruit variable in size, trans- 
lucent, slightly darker than White Grape, mildly acid; quality 
excellent, very rich and sweet. A well-known old sort. 

White Grape (White Antwerp, Imperial White [?], Imperial Blanc). 
1 Garden and Forest 7: 188. 



Red and White Currants 311 

— Probably the best known and finest white currant grown. De- 
scribed as moderately vigorous, rather slender, somewhat spreading, 
productive. Bunches long, berries quite uniformly large, translucent, 
whitish, attractive, mild in flavor and of fine quality. E. P. Powell 
says r that it was long before he secured the genuine White Grape. 
This he considers to be absolutely the finest white currant grown. 
The fruit is large, handsome, clear in color, entirely unlike the 
creamy color of the more common so-called white currants. 

White Imperial. — A variety strongly recommended by S. D. Wil- 
lard, of Geneva, N. Y. Said to be by far the sweetest currant known, 
the difference in that respect being like that of the sweet and sour 
cherry. Clusters and berries of good size. 

White Pearl. — Mentioned and described, in Hovey's Magazine, 
Vol. 17, p. 217, as raised by Remi Wilquet near Brussels. Perhaps 
not introduced in America. Fuller gives this name as a synonym 
of White Dutch. 

White Provence. — Mentioned by Downing, Prince, and Fuller. 
Said to be strong, upright, with leaves more or less silvered at the 
edge. Fruit large, yellowish white. 

White Versaillaise. — Said to have been raised by M. Bertin, of 
Versailles, France. Vigorous, upright, easily picked. Bunches long; 
berries large, slightly darker than White Grape. 

Wilder. — A seedling of the Versaillaise which originated in the 
seventies with E. Y. Teas, of IrvingtoD, Ind., who named and dis- 
seminated it to a limited extent. Later the stock was sold to S. D. 
Willard, of Geneva, N. Y., who catalogued it as "President Wilder." 
Said by him to be the most productive currant which he had tried. 
Described as vigorous, upright. Fruit large, but not so uniform as 
Fay, of fine color, lighter than Fay, remaining bright and attractive 
until very late in the season. Flavor mild, quality good. Demands 
heavy pruning. A reliable variety. 

1 Garden and Forest 7: 188. 



312 



Bush-Fruits 



EUROPEAN BLACK CURRANTS 

(Ribes nigrum) 

Baldwin. — Described as moderately vigorous and productive. 
Flavor milder than that of the Common Black. 

Bang Up. — Mentioned by Downing as a variety similar, and in 
no way superior, to the Black English. 




Fig. 42. Black Naples currant. 



Black Grape (Odgen's Black Grape). — A vigorous grower, but 
unproductive. Fruit variable, strong flavored. 

Black Naples. (Fig. 42). — One of the best known English sorts. 
Vigorous, moderately productive. Fruit variable, strong flavored. 

Black Victoria. — Growing at the Geneva, N. Y., Experiment 
Station. 

Booskoop Giant. — A black currant from Holland. Vigorous and 



European Black Currants 



313 



productive. Fruit suitable for preserving, very large, hanging for a 
long time on the bushes. 

Brown-Fruited (Green-Fruited, Russian Green).— An English 

variety having greenish 
brown fruit when ripe. 
Berries dry, hard, rank 
flavored and worthless. 
Champion. — Des- 
cribed as of dwarf, up- 
right habit, fairly pro- 
ductive. Fruit of large 
size, borne in short 
clusters, mild flavored. 
Common Black (Black 
English). —Described 
as vigorous and pro- 
ductive, of spreading 
habit. Fruit medium 
to .large, the clusters 
ripening evenly. Pulp 
rather acid and strong 
flavored. 

Dwarf Black.— Men- 
tioned in the Horticul- 
turist for 1854, p. 162, 
as of more dwarf habit 
than the other blacks. 
Lee (Lee's Prolific).— 
Bush dwarfish, mod- 
erately vigorous, pro- 
ductive. Fruit bright, 
but not much better 
than Black Naples. 

Prince of Wales— Origin Ontario. Bush vigorous and productive, 
giving the highest yield of all black currants at Geneva, N. Y. Fruit 
variable in size, milder in flavor than the Common Black, nearly 
sweet when fully ripe. 




Fig. 43. Ribes americanum (X3^)- 



314 Bush-Fruits 

Saunders. — Originated by William Saunders, of Ontario. De- 
scribed as vigorous and productive. Variable in size, rather mild. 
Fairly well disseminated and promising in Canada. 

THE GOLDEN OR BUFFALO CURRANT 

(Ribes odoratum) 

Crandall. — The best known variety of this species, although the 
plants sent out under that name differ so much that they are sup- 
posed to have been only seedlings. Like the forms found in unnum- 
bered door-yards, known as the Flowering Currant, this is a tall, 
vigorous, upright bush. Although apparently productive, the aver- 
age yield per bush at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station for 
three years was less than one pound. The fruit has a tough skin and 
such a peculiar flavor that it is little prized. 

Deseret. — Another named variety of this species. Mentioned by 
Fuller, who says it was highly valued by the Mormons of Salt Lake 
City, whence he received it. 

Golden. — Apparently a variety of the western representative of 
this species, (Ribes aureum), since it is described by Fuller as 
"large, round, deep golden yellow, very acid, and slightly bitter. 
Flowers yellow. Of no value for its fruit, but might be improved. 
Native of the Rocky Mountains and a variety of Ribes aureum." 

Jelly. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station from 
R. H. Blair & Company, Kansas City, Mo., being selected plants of 
this species obtained in western Kansas. Found to be of larger size 
and more productive than Crandall. 

This species has often been known under the name Missouri 
Currant. It has also appeared at times under other names, such as 
Utah, Utah Hybrid, etc. 

THE AMERICAN BLACK CURRANT (FIG. 43) 

(Ribes americanum) 

This species is almost unknown in cultivation, yet Fuller men- 
tions one variety under the name Sweet-fruited Missouri, which he 
describes as large, black, roundish ovoid. Bunches small, containing 



Recommended Varieties of Currants 315 

few berries of sweet, musky flavor. He says that it is a slight im- 
provement upon the common wild black currant, which may be 
found in almost any low, moist woods. The species is being used 
as a basis for plant-breeding work in the Northwest. 



RECOMMENDED VARIETIES OF CURRANTS 

The Cherry currant is still considered one of the most 
desirable large-fruited varieties. Fay is preferred in some 
localities, having longer bunches, more easily picked, and 
being more uniform is size, but inferior in yield and in 
habit of growth. Victoria, Prince Albert and Wilder are 
good late varieties, remaining in good condition for ship- 
ping longer than either Cherry or Fay. Chautauqua is 
one of the promising newer varieties. Prince Albert is 
one of the most productive, and popular for jelly. Vic- 
toria is only medium in size. White Imperial and White 
Grape are good white varieties, though white currants 
are little grown. Prince of Wales is a productive black 
variety. 



CHAPTER XIV 



VARIETIES OF GOOSEBERRIES 



The gooseberries cultivated for fruit belong to two dis- 
tinct types, the European and the American. The former 
are representatives of the species 
known as Ribes Grossularia, Linn. 
(Fig. 44) . The botanical origin of 
the American type is somewhat 
confused. Formerly it was 
thought that R. oxyacanthoides, 
Linn., is the parent of nearly all 
our cultivated varieties. But it 
was the eastern form of this type, 
now given the specific name R. 
hirtellum, that is chiefly involved. 
Several of our best-known vari- 
eties, such as Downing and 
Houghton, are considered to be 
hybrids between this and the 
European type. 

One or two other native species 
are already represented or are be- 
ing used by plant-breeders in the 
development of varieties suited to 
particular regions. 
Ribes Cynosbati, Linn., the prickly-fruited eastern goose- 
berry has played little part in the development of American 

316- 




44. Ribes Grossula- 
ria (XI). 



Varieties of Gooseberries 



317 



varieties, the variety Mountain being the only one of 
prominence known to have been derived in part from this 
species. The prickly character of the fruit is against it, 
but smooth-fruited forms occur and the fruit is larger than 
that of R. hirtellum. 

Ribes setosum, Lindl. and R. inerme, Rydb. are believed 
to be sparingly represented in cultivation. The former 
appears to be a gradation 
species of a series begin- 
ning with R. hirtellum in 
the East, R. oxyacan- 
thoides of the Plains, R. 
setosum, from northwest- 
ern Nebraska west and 
northward and R. irri- 
guum, of the Pacific slope. 

Rib e s missouriense, 
Nutt., the fragile-flowered 
gooseberry of the Plains, 
more commonly known as 
R. gracile (Fig. 45), is a 
promising species for that 
region and has been 
largely used in plant-breeding work at the South Dakota 
Experiment Station in seeking to develop varieties better 
adapted to the northern Plains region. This species and 
the form commonly known as R. rotundifolium have also 
been used by W. F. Vanfleet in producing hybrids in the 
East, with promising results. (" Rural New Yorker", 
1907: 622.) 

The European species (Ribes Grossularia) has been long 




Fig. 45. Ribes missouriense (X 2 /s). 



318 Bush-Fruits 

in cultivation and its fruit greatly improved, at least in 
size and appearance, while the American, being young in 
cultivation, is far behind in size, though superior in 
quality. The English varieties all have a thick, rough 
skin, that detracts from their value, and they are even 
more sour than our own. The susceptibility of English 
varieties to mildew, which has been the chief cause of 
their failure in the United States, is really the most promi- 
nent distinction between the two species at the present 
time. The European type is essentially a stocky and 
close grower whereas the American type is a slender and 
open grower. Plate XII. 

HISTORY AND FUTURE 

Like the currant, the gooseberry appears not to have 
been known to the ancients, and it is uncertain when it 
first began to receive garden culture. Although long 
common among the hedges and woods of England, it is 
thought by most authors not to have been indigenous. 
It is reported, as first mentioned by British authors, 
about the beginning of the sixteenth century. Geo. W. 
Johnson x states that Tusser, in his "Five Hundred Points 
of Good Husbandry," published during 1557, mentions 
the gooseberry as then among garden fruits. Johnson's 
edition of Gerarde's "Herbal," published in 1636, says: 
" There be divers sorts of the gooseberries, some greater, 
others lesse; some round, others long, and some of a red 
color. . . . The sorts of gooseberries are these: the long 
greene, the great yellowish, the blew, the great round red, 
1 The Cucumber and Gooseberry, p. 103. 




Industry, the European type. 





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Pale Red, the American type. 
Plate XII. Two types of gooseberry. 



History and Future 319 

the long red, and the prickly gooseberry." The further 
statement is made that "These plants doe grow in London 
gardens and elsewhere in great abundance." Under the 
heading of names, the statement is that "this shrub hath 
no name among old Writers, who as we deeme knew it not, 
or else esteemed it not; the later writers call it in Latine, 
Grossularia, and oftentimes of the berries, Uva Crispa, 
Uva spina, Uva spinella, and Uva Crispina; in French, 
Groiselles; in English, Gooseberry, Gooseberry bush and 
Fea-berry bush in Cheshire, my native country." This 
latter name was also known in other parts of England, 
being abbreviated into Feabes or Fapes in some localities. 
Most authors have thought that the name gooseberry 
was derived from the fruit having been first used as a 
sauce with "green goose." Others doubt this. Geo. W. 
Johnson x says: "It is somewhat unfortunate for this deri- 
vation that it has never been so used. It seems to me more 
probable to be a corruption of the Dutch name Kruisbes, 
or Gruisbes. Kruisbes, I believe, was derived from Kruis, 
the Cross, and Bes, as Berry, because the fruit was ready 
for use just after the Festival of the Invention of the Holy 
Cross; just as Kruis-haring, in Dutch, is a herring caught 
after the same festival." 2 

Loudon states 3 that the first marked improvement in 
size was made by the Dutch. But its present remarkable 
development has been brought about largely by the efforts 

1 The Cucumber and Gooseberry , p. 109. 

2 An excellent early account of the gooseberries, with colored 
plates, is Thory's "Monographie on histoire naturelle du genre 
Groseillier," Paris, 1829.— L. H. B. 

3 Arboretum et Fruiticetum, 2: 973. 



320 Bush-Fruits 

of the Lancashire weavers. The production of new varie- 
ties, and the increase in size, has been greatly stimulated 
by the annual shows or "gooseberry prize meetings," at 
which liberal prizes are offered for the largest fruits. The 
results of these are published in the "Gooseberry Annual," 
now forming an extensive set. At the beginning of the 
century the largest fruits seldom exceeded 10 dwts. in 
weight, but in recent years they frequently exceed 30 dwts. 
Size is not the only quality sought; some sorts are prized 
for their flavor, some for their beauty, and others for their 
productiveness. There is also a wide diversity in the 
season of ripening among different sorts. 

The history of the American gooseberry in cultivation 
began with the Houghton, which was raised from seed of 
a wild plant by Abel Houghton, of Lynn, Massachusetts, 
in 1833. It is significant that the most reliable American 
sort, and the one most generally cultivated at the present 
time, is but one generation removed from this, being a 
seedling of it. 

What the gooseberry of the future will be no one can 
say, but it is certain to be largely what we make it. It 
seems safe to predict that it will not come from England. 
Adaptability to climate, with consequent resistance to 
disease, and quality of the fruit, are in favor of American 
species. We have given the gooseberry too little atten- 
tion, and much of that has been on the wrong basis in 
trying to develop seedlings of the English varieties. The 
gooseberry as now grown is objectionable on account of 
its thorns. Yet there are forms comparatively free from 
these uncomfortable additions, and careful, persuasive 
treatment ought to induce the plants to relinquish them 



The Kinds of Gooseberries 321 

altogether. An English variety has been recently intro- 
duced which is said to be thornless. The fruit of our species 
is, in most cases, perfectly smooth, while that of the Eng- 
lish gooseberry is roughly pubescent, if not hairy or 
prickly also. 

THE KINDS OF GOOSEBERRIES 

In the following list of varieties those known to be of 
foreign parentage are designated by the letter (F), those 
believed to carry an admixture of both types are marked 
by the letter (H). 

Apex. — A variety from Oregon. Said to be a native seedling, 
though somewhat resembling the European type in growth and 
general appearance. — T. T. Lyon, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 118:23. 

Blucher (F). — Very large, dark red, oblong or roundish oblong, 
nearly smooth, 1 with thin skin, sweet, of very good flavor. Bush 
a strong grower, apparently productive, with but little mildew. 

Careless (F). — Succeeds at the New York Experiment Station. 

Carman. — Described as large golden yellow, very hardy and re- 
markably free from mildew. 

Carrie. — Origin Minnesota. Vigorous, hardy, with an abundance 
of leaves, free from mildew and anthracnose, nearly thornless. Fruit 
larger than Houghton, turning a deep maroon when ripe, flavor 
excellent. 

Cedar Hill (H). — A variety mentioned in the report of the U. S. 
Pomologist for 1891, p. 394, as received from Dr. A. W. Thornton, 
West Ferndale, Washington, with whom it originated. Described 
as large, oval, with long, adhering flower parts, and a few scattering 

1 The term "smooth," as used in describing English gooseberries, 
should be understood to mean free from hairs, for the skin of these 
varieties has a roughness to the touch quite different from that of 
the American varieties. 



322 Bush-Fruits 

prickles. Said to be an upright grower, of good size, prolific. Mildew 
proof in Washington. Possibly a seedling of some western species. 

Champion. — Said to have originated with O. Dickinson, Salem, 
Oregon. Plant upright, prolific. Fruit large, uniform, transparent, 
with tender skin. Said to endure neglect well, and to be an excellent 
shipper. Popular in Indiana. 

Chautauqua. — Origin unknown. It first came to notice in an old 
garden at Dunkirk, N. Y., having been obtained from a neighbor who 
had secured it from some other source. It was secured by Lewis 
Roesch, who introduced it in 1894. Although carrying European 
blood, if not a pure-bred European sort, the Chautauqua suffers 
but little from mildew, the greatest enemy of varieties of this type. 
The bush is stocky, upright, compact, with thick, dark shining leaves 
like other European varieties. Productive when weU established. 
Fruit large, roundish-oval, silvery green, flesh green, firm and sweet. 
Freedom, Wellington Glory and Portage are other European sorts 
said to resemble Chautauqua. Plate XIII. 

Columbus (F). — Introduced by Ellwanger & Barry, of Rochester, 
N. Y. A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit 
large, oblong or roundish oblong, white or greenish yellow, sweet, 
of best quality. Possibly the same as Triumph, Plate XIII. A 
variety has been sold under this name which seemed to be the 
same as Chautauqua. 

Crown Bob (F). — A variety long known in England as desirable 
either for home use or market. Bush dwarfish, but vigorous and 
productive. Fruit medium to large, nearly round, dark red, nearly 
smooth, almost sweet, of good quality, similar to Industry in color, 
but somewhat smaller; quite subject to mildew. 

Crystal (H). — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station 
from J. M. Ogle, of Puyallup, Wash. Professor Beach says 1 that 
this variety appears to be a hybrid between the European goose- 
berry and some American species, possibly Ribes Cynosbati, its Euro- 
pean parentage being indicated by the general appearance and char- 
acter of the fruit, which is pubescent, like the European varieties. 
Its canes are tall and slender, and the leaves thin. Very productive, 
but hardly desirable, owing to its dull green color and poor flavor. 
Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 114:16. 




Plate XIII. Gooseberries. Chautauqua above; Columbus below 



The Kinds of Gooseberries 323 

Dominion (F). — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment 
Station from E. C. Pierson of Waterloo, N. Y. Described as vigorous 
and promising. Fruit large, pale greenish white. 

Downing (H). — The Great American gooseberry. More widely 
grown and more generally prized than any other sort. Originated 
by Charles Downing at Newburg, N. Y., from seed of the Houghton. 
Pure seedlings of this variety grown at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experi- 
ment Station, while not generally closely resembling the parent, seem, 
in some cases, to indicate a mixture of foreign blood, so that Professor 
Beach is led to consider this a hybrid between the American and 
European gooseberry. Downing describes it as upright, vigorous 
and productive. Fruit somewhat larger than Houghton, roundish 
oval, whitish green, with the rib-veins distinct. Skin smooth; flesh 
rather soft, juicy, very good. Excellent for family use. It has seldom 
mildewed in the United States, and succeeds over a wide area. 
Houghton is said to be sometimes sold for this variety because more 
easily propagated. The fruit must be picked very soon after reaching 
full size, for it ripens quickly and becomes too soft for handling or 
shipment. In quality it is superior to the European varieties, and 
surpassed by few, if any, native sorts. 

Duke of Sutherland (F) . — Succeeds in New York State. 

Excellent (F). — Promising at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment 
Station. A strong grower, somewhat subject to mildew. Fruit 
medium to large, round and nearly smooth, light red, sweet, very- 
good. 

Excelsior. — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station 
from J. H. Haynes, of Delphi, Indiana, with whom it originated. 
A strong grower; fruit light green, roundish, smooth. 

Freedom (F). — A promising early variety. 

Frontenac (F). — Received at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment 
Station from H. S. Anderson, of Union Springs, N. Y. Fruit large, 
oblong, smooth, pale green, sweet, good. 

Gipsy Queen (F). — Late. Succeeds in New York. 

Golden Prolific. — Moderately vigorous; foliage rather susceptible 
to disease. Fruit very large, elongate, yellowish ground color, 
washed with reddish purple on exposed cheek, skin very thick and 
tough, flavor poor but sweet when ripe. 



324 Bush-Fruits 

Gracilla (F).— Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker, 1897, p. 646, 
as a promising variety of the English type received from L. H. 
Hoysradt, Pine Plains, N. Y., in the spring of 1895. 

Hale Golden (H).— Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker, 1897, 
p. 646, as on trial at the Rural grounds. 

Hedgehog (Improved Early) (F). — A vigorous grower, productive, 
comparatively free from mildew. Fruit below medium size, nearby 
round, somewhat hairy, yellowish green. 

Hobbs Seedling. — Mentioned by Downing. Thought to have been 
originated by O. J. Hobbs, of Randolph, Pa. Described as light pale 
green, nearly one-half larger than Houghton. 

Houghton (H). — Grown from seed in 1833 by Abel Houghton, of 
Lynn, Mass., who planted Crown Bob, White Smith, White Rock 
and Red Champion, with a native plant from the woods in the cen- 
ter. One plant only was saved, the Houghton. This was the first 
American variety introduced, and is still one of the best flavored, 
most hardy and productive, though too small. It is generally re- 
garded as a pure native, but the account of its origin, and experi- 
ments made at Geneva, N. Y., by growing seedlings from two of its 
seedlings, Smith and Downing, indicate that it is a hybrid between 
the American and European species. The bush is rather slender 
and drooping in habit. The fruit small, handsome, dark red, with 
a whitish bloom, thin skinned, smooth, juicy, sweet, and of excellent 
quality. 

Hudson. — Raised by Joseph H. Ricketts, and said to be of fine 
quality, larger than Downing, free from mildew. Foliage thick and 
glossy. Thought to be an American or a cross-bred variety. Hard 
to propagate. 

Huntsman. — Said to be a strong grower, and apparently produc- 
tive, comparatively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, 
oblong, smooth, pale green, sweet, good. 

Industry (Whinham's Industry) (F). — First grown by Robert 
Wyndham in northern England early in the nineteenth century. 
Disseminated in this country by Ellwanger & Barry, about 1885. 
One of the best known and generally successful European varieties. 
Vigorous, productive, somewhat subject to mildew. Fruit medium 
to large, varying from pear shape to roundish oblong, smooth, or 




Plate XIV. Industry. The most prominent European-type gooseberry 
in the United States. 



The Kinds of Gooseberries 325 

with very few minute prickles, dark red, mild subacid or sweet, of 
good flavor. Said to be very hard to propagate in the United States. 
Plates XI and XIV. 

Jewett. — Received at the United States Division of Pomology from 
George H. Andrews, Clarkson, N. Y. Found in a pasture. De- 
scribed as large, oblong, whitish green, changing to blotched and 
stippled red. Rep. U. S. Pomologist 1894: 27. 

Jolly Angler (F). — Vigorous, and apparently productive. Fruit 
medium to large, oblong or roundish oblong, smooth, light green, 
sweet, good. 

Keepsake (F). — A strong grower, promising to be productive, some- 
what subject to mildew. Fruit medium or above, nearly round, 
smooth, greenish white, sweet or nearly so, very good. 

Lady Popham (F). — A moderate grower, productive, compara- 
tively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, 
yellow, very sweet, good. A good variety for exhibition purposes. 

Lancashire Lad (F). — A strong grower, comparatively free from 
mildew. Fruit medium to large, nearly round, dark red, almost 
wine color, slightly hairy, of good quality, subacid or nearly sweet. 

Leveller (F). — A moderate grower, mildewing but slightly, and 
promising to be productive. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, 
yellowish, slightly acid, good. 

Lord Beaconsfield (F). — A good grower, promising to be productive, 
somewhat subject to mildew. Fruit below medium size, nearly 
round, green, smooth, sweet and good. 

Matchless (F) . — A strong grower, promising to be productive, mil- 
dewing but slightly. Fruit large, oblong, green, slightly hairy, 
sweet, very good. 

May Duke (F). — One of the successful early foreign sorts at the 
Geneva, N. Y., Experiment Station. 

Mountain (H). — A variety which originated with the Shakers, of 
Lebanon, N. Y. Bush tall and productive, with slender, sprawling 
branches, which need close pruning. Fruit dull, brownish purple, 
somewhat larger than Downing, oblong, smooth, with a thick skin, 
moderately juicy and sweet. Professor S. A. Beach says l that this 
variety is of special interest, as being the only known representative 
1 Geneva (N. Y.) Exp. Sta. Bull. 114: 18. 



326 Bush-Fruits 

of Ribes Cynosbati which has found its way into cultivation, being 
clearly a hybrid between this and a European species. The long, 
slender, solitary spines, the tall canes, sprawling branches, dull brown 
purplish color of the fruit, and the very dark green pulp are like 
Cynosbati, as are also the beautiful brown and red color of its autumn 
foliage which is quite unlike the yellow or occasional brown tints of 
the European kinds. The fruit is very large for an American variety, 
and its thick, smooth skin indicates foreign parentage, the fruit of 
Cynosbati having a thin skin Usually beset with prickles. The glossy 
upper surface, and somewhat leathery texture of the foliage, and 
comparative short, thick buds are also inherited from the European 
parent, Cynosbati having slender buds, with soft, pubescent leaves, 
neither leathery nor glossy. 

Newell Seedling (H). — A variety mentioned in the Report of the 
Illinois Horticulture Society for 1890, p. 59, as on exhibition in a 
preserving solution. Said to be large, of fine appearance, hardy, 
and free from mildew. 

Orange (Engle's Yellow?). — Said to ripen seven to ten days earlier 
than other sorts. Fruit about the size of Houghton, rich golden 
yellow, fine flavored and very sweet. 

Oregon Jumbo (H). — A variety offered by the J. T. Lovett Com- 
pany, of New Jersey, and described as "monstrous, and excelling 
all others. Superb in appearance and flavor. Vigorous, productive, 
hardy, and reliable. Fruit smooth, pale green, of high quality." 

Pale Red (American Red, American Seedling, Robert's Sweet- 
water, Ohio Seedling, Dutch Joe, Ohio Prolific, St. Clair [Ameri- 
can] Cluster.) — A variety of unknown origin which has long been 
in cultivation. Frequently known as Cluster or American Cluster. 
It appears to be of pure Ribes hirtellum parentage. The bush is a 
strong grower, with slender wood, very productive. Fruit small 
or medium, darker in color than Houghton, tender, sweet and good. 
One of the oldest cultivated varieties. 

Pearl (H) . — Originated with Professor William Saunders, of Lon- 
don, Ont., who gives its parentage as Downing crossed with an 
English variety known as Aston's Seedling, which is apparently a 
synonym of Red Warrington. The variety resembles Downing very 
closely, both in bush and fruit. 



The Kinds of Gooseberries 327 

Poorman. — Originated along about 1888 with William H. Craig- 
head, Brigham City, Utah; introduced by D. S. Lohr, Trementon, 
Utah, in 1896. Said to be a cross between Houghton and Downing, 
which the bush and fruit indicate to be true. Plants so large and 
vigorous that they must be set farther apart than other varieties; 
upright-spreading, very productive, not susceptible to mildew. Fruit 
larger than either parent, measuring over an inch long and nearly 
an inch through, oval, pinkish red when ripe, quality excellent. 
Considered the best of sixty-two varieties grown at the Geneva, 
N. Y., Experiment Station. 

Portage (F). — A variety received at the United States Division of 
Pomology from A. H. House, Mantua Station, Ohio. Described in 
the report for 1891, p. 395. Also described, and illustrated by a 
colored plate, in the report for 1894. Said to be a chance seedling 
found in 1874. Fruit solitary, evenly distributed, large to very 
large, oblong oval; surface moderately smooth, dull, slightly downy, 
with an occasional prickle. Color yellowish green, with bronze dots 
near stem, and a long suture on some specimens. Flesh translucent, 
greenish, quite firm ; pulp melting, moderately juicy. A good shipper. 
Flavor mild subacid, rich, quality good. 

Puyallup (Puyallup Mammoth) (F). — The original bush is said to 
have been dug in 1881, at an old Indian camp on the bank of the 
Puyallup River, one mile below the town of that name, by W. M. 
Lee and his wife, of Tacoma, Wash. Introduced by J. M. Ogle, in 
1887. Said to be a fairly strong grower, rather late in ripening. 
Fruit large, pale green, smooth, sweet, of good quality. Mentioned 
in the Report of the U. S. Pomologist for 1891, p. 395, as apparently 
identical with Triumph, but Professor Beach considers this an error. 

Queen of the Whites (F). — A strong grower, comparatively free 
from mildew. Fruit of medium size, nearly round, smooth, pale 
yellowish green, sweet, good. 

Red Champagne (F). — A strong grower, comparatively free from 
mildew. Fruit small to medium, nearly round, slightly hairy, dark 
red, sweet, and good. This variety was recommended by the Amer- 
ican Pomological Society in 1850. 

Red Jacket (H).— A variety originated many years ago by Pro- 
fessor William Saunders, of London, Ont. Named and introduced 



328 Bush-Fruits 

by George S. Josselyn, of Fredonia, N. Y., who thinks that it was 
a seedling of Houghton crossed by Red Warrington. It is a strong 
grower, productive, and a good shipper. The fruit is large, roundish 
or elongated, reddish green shading into red, smooth, quite trans- 
parent when ripe; skin rather tender. Flesh juicy, rich, fragrant, of 
good quality. 

Red Jacket (F). — An English variety, entirely distinct from the 
American Red Jacket. Not a strong grower, but promising to be 
productive and comparatively free from mildew. Fruit large to 
very large, and often narrowed toward the stem. 

Red Warrington (Aston Seedling) (F) . — A strong grower, compara- 
tively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong, delicate 
pale red, hairy, sweet, of best quality. Recommended by the Amer- 
ican Pomological Society in 1850. Also mentioned in the Horticul- 
turist, Vol. II, p. 341, as the best kind, both in Canada and in Eng- 
land. Said to ripen late and to hang long on the bushes without 
injury. 

Smith (H). — Originated by Dr. Smith, of Windsor, Vt., from seed 
of the Houghton. According to Professor Beach, 1 it shows indica- 
tions of being a hybrid between the American and European species. 
Seedlings of Smith crossed with Pale Red, which is thought to be a 
pure American variety, have occasionally shown marked European 
characteristics, while none of the pure seedlings of Pale Red have 
ever given such indications. It is described as vigorous, with some- 
what curving canes and slender branches. Fruit dull, pale green, 
sometimes spotted with red, and having a light bloom. Skin smooth, 
thin. Pulp sweet and good. 

Smiling Beauty (F). — A good grower. Fruit medium to large, 
nearly round, greenish yellow, sweet, of best quality. 

Spineless (F). — Recently introduced in the United States, by C. 
H. Joosten, of New York City. It is figured in the Gardener's 
Chronicle for July 27, 1895, which says: "They are spineless varieties 
obtained from seed. The first spineless gooseberry, according to the 
Revue Horticole, 1892: 180, was obtained as a chance seedling by 
M. Billard about 1860. About 1884, M. Ed. Lefort sowed the seeds 
of this variety, from which he obtained a race of spineless varieties, 
1 Bull. 114: 19. 



The Kinds of Gooseberries 329 

several of which are described in the Revue Horticole, as above cited. 
The variety we figure is a dwarf form, very productive, and with 
fruit of good flavor. It is the form described and figured by M. 
Carriere and Madame Edouard Lefort. The varieties are grafted 
upon Ribes aureum, but the scions soon become free." 

Stein (H).— Mentioned in The Rural New-Yorker, 1897, p. 646, 
as "a cross between Houghton and an old German variety." 

Stockwell (F).— A moderate grower. Fruit medium to large, 
oblong, smooth, light green, sweet, good. 

Strubler (H?).— Seedlings originated by Phil. Strubler, of Naper- 
ville, 111., have been sent out under this name, with different numbers 
attached. Nearly all of them are seedlings of Downing or Smith. 
They are described by Professor Beach, in Bull. 114 of the Geneva 
(N. Y.) Experiment Station, and have also been mentioned in reports 
of the United States Pomologist. 

Succeed (F).— A fair grower, promising to be productive, and com- 
paratively free from mildew. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, 
yellowish green, sweet, good. 

Sulphur (Early Sulphur) (F).— A strong grower, comparatively 
free from mildew. Fruit of medium size, round, nearly smooth, fine 
yellow color, sweet, good. Placed on the list of the American Pomo- 
logical Society in 1850. 

Sunset (F).— A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. 
Fruit medium to large, oblong, nearly smooth, yellowish green, 
sweet, of best quality. 

Tally Ho (F).— A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew. 
Fruit medium to large, pear-shaped, pale green, nearly smooth, 

sweet, good. 

Thumper (F).— A moderate grower, promising to be very produc- 
tive. Fruit medium to large, oblong, smooth, light green, sweet, good. 

Tree.— A variety mentioned by T. T. Lyon, in Mich. Exp. Sta. 
Bull. 118: 23, as apparently a native. Vigorous, healthy, with red 

fruit. 

Triumph (F).— A strong grower, comparatively free from mildew, 
productive. Fruit large, oblong or roundish, pale yellow, sweet, 
smooth, good. This variety has received strong commendation from 
various sources. Mentioned at the meeting of the Western New 



330 Bush-Fruits 

York Horticultural Society in 1892, as very promising, a stronger 
grower than Industry and equally productive. In the report of 
the American Pomological Society for 1889, p. 120, E. Williams 
says that it is a great improvement on any other variety that will 
grow in our climate. 

Victoria. — Mentioned in the Gardener's Monthly for 1870, p. 156, 
as a small, smooth variety. Thorns not numerous, but sharp, inclined 
to bend over. 

Wellington Glory (F). — The most productive European gooseberry 
grown at the Geneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station. A strong grower, 
comparatively free from mildew. Fruit attractive in appearance, 
medium to large, oblong, smooth, with slight bloom, pale yellow, 
nearly white, sweet, of very good quality. 

White Eagle (F) . — Bush a moderate grower, promising to be pro- 
ductive. Fruit medium to large, oblong, pear-shaped, smooth, 
greenish white, sweet, good. This variety was exhibited before the 
Pennsylvania Horticultural Society in 1853. 

Whitesmith (Woodward's) (F). — A strong grower, somewhat sub- 
ject to mildew, productive. Fruit medium to large, nearly round. 

Gooseberry varieties in foreign lands are very numerous. 
Lindley's "Guide to the Orchard," published in 1830, 
enumerates nearly one thousand as already in cultivation 
at that time. Many of these as well as more recent in- 
troductions have found their way across the water at dif- 
ferent times, usually only to soon disappear. In recent 
years considerable work with foreign sorts has been done 
at the Geneva, New York, Experiment Station. With 
better knowledge of how to control mildew some of them 
are proving valuable. The foreign varieties included in 
the foregoing list were largely chosen from those men- 
tioned by S. A. Beach in Bulletin No. 114 of that Station. 

No attempt has been made to include the many foreign 
varieties mentioned by Downing and others of the older 



Ornamental Currants and Gooseberries' 331 

writers, nor those of recent days which have attained no 
prominence in American horticulture. 

RECOMMENDED VARIETIES OF GOOSEBERRIES 

The Downing is undoubtedly still the leading com-^ 
mercial gooseberry in the United States, though too small 
to be entirely satisfactory. In the foreign class Industry 
is best known and probably most generally successful. 
Among the newer sorts which are attaining prominence, 
Chautauqua, American Red Jacket and Poorman are 
worthy of especial mention. 

ORNAMENTAL CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES 

The best known species in this role is the flowering cur- 
rant, Ribes odoratum (Fig. 46), commonly known as R. 
aureum, so common in eastern gardens. This is a most 
attractive plant early in spring. It forms a graceful, droop- 
ing shrub, well adapted to masses or groups. In the early 
months of summer few plants are more attractive than this, 
regardless of its bloom, for its foliage is bright and glossy, 
and the form of the plant perfect. Yet before the middle 
of August its leaves are mostly gone. Were it not for 
this defect, few plants would deserve a higher rank for 
ornament. 

The most showy plant of the genus is the fuchsia- 
flowered gooseberry, Ribes speciosum, of the Pacific coast 
(Fig. 47). Its flowers are long, bright red and handsome, 
and its foliage small, firm and glossy. It is a good plant 
for ornament, but is not hardy in the northern states. 

A plant which has received much more attention for its 
flowering qualities is the red-flowered currant, Ribes 




Fig. 46. Ribes odoratum (X 1 ' 2 )- 




Fig. 48. Ribes Lobbii. 




Fig. 47. Ribes speciosum (XV3). 



Ornamental Currants and Gooseberries 333 

sanguineum. It has been frequently grown both in the 
United States and in Europe, and seems to be everywhere 
prized. The flowers are rose-colored or reddish purple, 
borne in long, leafless racemes and produced in great pro- 
fusion. Unfortunately, it is not entirely hardy in the 
northern states, needing some protection, which the 
beauty of its bloom will well repay. 

A hardier plant is the hybrid between the preceding 
species and Ribes odoratum, which is commonly known 
under the name Ribes Gordonianum. This is not so hardy 
as Ribes odoratum, but will stand more exposure than 
Ribes sanguineum. It is intermediate in character be- 
tween the two parents, resembling R. sanguineum in shape 
of flower, though the flowers are lighter in color and nearly 
odorless, while the character of bush is more like R. odora- 
tum. Although not a common plant, it has been well 
known, both here and abroad, and frequently mentioned 
in horticultural literature. 

Several species of the Menziesii group have large, attrac- 
tive flowers, particularly R. amictum, and R. californicum; 
also, R. Lobbii. (Fig. 48.) R. alpinum and R. fasciculatum 
have ornamental scarlet fruits, those of the latter species 
ripening in September and remaining on the plants during 
winter. They are recommended for borders of shrubberies 
and the trailing kinds for slopes. R. alpinum is said to be 
excellent for shady places. R. alpestre, a strong-growing 
and very spiny gooseberry from China is suggested as a 
possible hedge-plant of value. 

For a full account of the botany of the cultivated and 
American species of Ribes, the reader is referred to the 
Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. 



CHAPTER XV 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GROSELLES 

The groselles like other economic plants, are subject to 
attack from insects of divers character, appearance, and 
habits. The list immediately following comprises those 
most likely to work serious injury. 

THE FOUR-LINED LEAF-BUG 

Poecilocapsus lineatus, Fabr. 

This is a native insect which was first described by Fabricius 
in 1798. It came into notice as injurious to dahlias, currants and 
other plants soon after the middle of the present century, and has 
never ceased its evil ways from that day to this. Its food plants 
embrace esculent and ornamental plants and a few weeds. 

The insect appears about the middle of May in northern latitudes, 
and takes up its abode on the tenderest leaves at the tip of the 
twigs. It is then too small to be readily seen, but by means of its 
proboscis, a perpetual self-acting pump, it immediately begins to 
drain the leaf of its sap. At first its work is not conspicuous, but 
soon becomes manifest by the appearance of small, dark spots, 
which later turn brown and die, the soft part of the leaf within 
having been sucked out. These spots, which at first are not larger 
than the head of a pin, may become much larger and even run to- 
gether, causing the death of the entire leaf. The shoot itself may be 
checked in growth, or even killed. 

The work of this insect, contrasted with that of leaf-spot and 
anthracnose fungi is shown at Plate XV, together with egg-clusters 
on a currant stem. 

The nymphs, or immature forms of the insect, are at first very 

334' 




Iieaf-spot of red currant. — Septoria 
ribis. Courtesy of Geneva, N. Y., 
Experiment Station. 



Anthracnose of red currant . 





Injury by four-lined leaf -bug on a goose- Egg-clusters of four-lined 

berry leaf. After Slingerland and Crosby. leaf-bug on stem of currant. 

Plate XV. Afflictions of currants and gooseberries. 



The Currant Plant-louse 335 

small, but easily recognized by the shining vermilion-red color of 
the body, marked by blackish spots on the thorax. The mature 
insect is a bright orange-yellow colored bug, three-tenths of an 
inch long, with four black stripes extending down the back. 

The eggs are laid in clusters in slits near the tips of twigs of the 
present year's growth of currants, gooseberries, and other shrubs. 
They are deposited late in June, and remain in this position until 
the nymphs hatch the following spring. These undergo five moults 
before reaching the adult form. The adults disappear early in July, 
there being but one brood a year. 

Remedies. — Since the insect feeds by sucking the sap of the plant 
from the inner tissues of the leaf, the application of poisons like Paris 
green can do no good. Kerosene emulsion, diluted with not more 
than five parts of water, if very thoroughly applied while the insects 
are still young, will prove effective. The egg clusters are not diffi- 
cult to find, and since they remain over winter, trimming off and 
burning five or six inches of infested twigs is a practicable remedy, 
at least on a small scale. 
Reference. 

Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. 58. 

THE CURRANT PLANT-LOUSE 

Mysus ribis, Linn. 

This is a small, yellowish plant-louse, appearing on the under side 
of currant leaves, causing them to curl and present a blistered and 
generally reddish appearance on the upper surface. The shining 
black, cucumber-shaped eggs are attached to the bark of the new 
growth and hatch soon after the leaves open. The lice hatched 
from these eggs are all females and are called stem-mothers. When 
mature they give birth to living young. These in turn, and through- 
out the summer, are all females and are born alive. Until food be- 
comes scarce nearly all are wingless, after which winged females are 
produced which migrate to other feeding grounds. As the lice become 
abundant they often cover the entire under side of the leaves, causing 
them to become very much curled and distorted. These leaves may 
fall later, preventing the fruit from ripening as it should. The fruit 



336 Bush-Fruits 

may also be injured in appearance at least, by a black fungus which 
grows on the honey-dew secreted by the lice. 

As the season advances the lice tend to disappear as a result of 
the attacks of their predaceous and parasitic enemies. Those which 
survive give birth to true males and females at the approach of cold 
weather. The females deposit shining black, cucumber-shaped eggs, 
which winter over, on twigs toward the end of October. 

Control. — Plant-lice are easily killed by contact insecticides, such 
as kerosene emulsion, soap solutions or tobacco extracts, if they can 
be reached. The trouble is that the curled leaves protect them 
from the spray. Success depends on applying the remedy thoroughly 
and promptly, before the leaves become much curled. In the home- 
garden handpicking may be simpler. 
Reference. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 139. 

THE SAN JOSE SCALE 

Aspidiosus perniciosus, Comstock 

Although better known as an orchard insect, the San Jose scale is 
frequently found on currant and gooseberry. It is supposed to be a 
native of China, becoming first known in the United States at San 
' Jose, California, about 1870. It was first discovered in the East in 
Virginia in 1893, but later observations indicate that it was at that 
time already widely spread throughout the eastern states. It was 
first described by Professor Comstock in 1880. Since that time more 
literature and legislation have been brought against it than toward 
any other plant enemy known to man. The insect is a near relative 
of the oyster-shell bark-louse. It appears on the plant or fruit as a 
round, gray scale about the size of the head of an ordinary pin. 
In the center is a dark nipple, surrounded by a yellowish ring. These 
are the larger scales which cover the full-grown females. The smaller 
scales are nearly black, with a central gray dot surrounded by a black 
depressed ring, bordered by a grayish ring. These smaller scales 
are thought to be the only ones which live over winter. The young 
are tiny, bright yellow little insects having six legs and able to crawl 
about readily. They soon find a place to suit their fancy, settle 



The Gooseberry Fruit-worm 337 

down and insert their long mouthparts into the branch or fruit and 
begin sucking the juices from within. In a short time thereafter 
they become covered with the protecting scales described above. 
A single mother is supposed to produce from 100 to 200 young during 
her lifetime under average conditions, even 600 being possible. This 
enormous increase, together with the fact that being so securely 
attached to the part on which it lives it is so readily distributed on 
nursery stock, and the like, accounts for its widespread distribution 
and the difficulty with which it is controlled. 

It is preyed upon by numerous, parasites, some of which have 
been heralded as avenging enemies which would free us from the 
destruction caused by this pest. They doubtless aid, but the factors 
are too complex to afford any great hope for relief along this line. 

Remedies.— The San Jos6 scale is not hard to kill if it can be hit. 
The chief trouble comes from the fact that it is so small and so 
easily missed that it is practically impossible to reach all the in- 
sects on the tree or plant. Then those which are left are able to 
multiply so rapidly that the tree is soon covered again. 

Lime-sulfur, in some of its forms has proved the most dependable 
and all-round satisfactory spray. The oil sprays are more agreeable 
to use and spread over the plant better, so that insects are less likely 
to be missed, but unless conditions are right in every way often injure 
the trees or plants. Thorough work is essential, whatever the remedy 
applied. 

So much has been written regarding this insect and its control that 
no attempt is made to cite references. A full account will be found 
in U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 62. 

THE GOOSEBERRY FRUIT-WORM 

Zophodia grossularice, Pack. 

The larva of this moth works within the fruit of the gooseberry, 
and sometimes of the currant. The moths appear early in spring 
and deposit their eggs on the surface of the very young fruit. The 
larva bores into the fruit and eats out its contents. When one 
berry is disposed of another is fastened to the now empty shell, and 
the worm bores its way into that one. Several fruits may be thus 



338 Bush-Fruits 

destroyed. The larva commonly reaches maturity by the first of 
July, when it is a pale green caterpillar, about three-fourths of an 
inch long, with a small, pale brown, horny looking head. It then 
descends to the ground and spins a thin cocoon among fallen leaves 
and rubbish, within which it changes to a chrysalis, remaining in 
this condition until the following spring. 

Remedies. — Infested berries color prematurely, and can be hand- 
picked, taking care that the very active worms do not quickly leave 
the fruit. If chickens are allowed in the field after fruiting time, they 
will consume many of the chrysalids. 
References. 

Riley, Mo. Repts. 1:140. 

Saunders, Rept. Ent. Soc. Ontario, 7:39. 



THE IMPORTED CURRANT BORER 

Sesia tipuliformis, Clerck • 

This is a slender, rapid-flying, wasp-like, dark blue moth, half 
an inch long and three-fourths of an inch broad, having three yellow 
bands across the body and a yellow collar. It appears toward the 
end of May or the first of June, and deposits its eggs upon the stems 
near a bud. When hatched the larva eats its way directly to the 
center, thence upward and downward in the pith. Here it remains 
until the following year, meanwhile eating out a tunnel from six 
to twelve inches in length. When full grown, the larva is about 
half an inch long, white, with a brown head and a few hairs scattered 
over its body. Like many other immigrants in the insect world, 
this species appears to prosecute its work with renewed energy in 
the home of its adoption, far outstripping the native currant borer 
in the success of its undertakings. It prefers the red currant, but 
it is not too fastidious to accept the black currant or gooseberry as a 
substitute when occasion demands. 

Remedies. — The method of treatment, which is the same for all 
species of borers attacking these plants, consists in pruning away 
and burning all infested canes, late in winter or early in spring, 
before the moths emerge. With several canes allowed to grow, and 



The Gooseberry Span-worm 339 

all wood cut away after it has borne one or two crops, this result will 

be accomplished with little extra trouble. 

References. 

Cook, Mich. Hort. Soc. Rep. 1890: 106. 

Colo. Expt. Sta. Bull. 19:21. 

Vt. Expt. Sta. Rept. 1894: 130. 

Wash. Expt. Sta. Bull. 36: 14. 

THE GOOSEBERRY SPAN-WORM 

Cymatophora riberearia, Fitch 

This is the larva of a native pale yellowish moth, marked with 
several dusky spots, and measuring about an inch and a quarter 
across. The larva when full grown is about an inch long, of a whit- 
ish color, with broad yellow stripes running down the back and 
sides, and with a number of black spots on each segment. It is a 
"measuring worm," moving by arching its body in the center. 
When disturbed, it drops from the leaf and remains suspended in 
the air by a web. It is most commonly found upon the gooseberry 
or black currant, appearing soon after the leaves expand and feeding 
upon them. It attains its full growth within three or four weeks, 
descends to the ground and transforms to a pupa, hidden by rubbish, 
or just beneath the surface of the ground. The moth emerges 
about two weeks later. The beautifully sculptured eggs are laid 
singly on the twigs, which they resemble in color, and are therefore 
hard to detect. Here they remain until spring, there being but one 
brood a year. It thus happens that the sale of plants affords a ready 
means for the spread of the insect. 

Remedies. — This is commonly not a serious enemy, but when it 
does become numerous, is more difficult to destroy than the or- 
dinary currant worm. Hellebore is not effective. Arsenate of lead 
at the rate of two pounds to fifty gallons of water will give good 
results when the worms are small. When full-grown they are not 
easily poisoned. Paris green, using one-fourth as much, may replace 
the lead arsenate, but the latter sticks to leaves better. 
References. 

Fitch, Rept. N. Y. State Ent. 3: 427. 

Riley, Mo. Rept. 9:3. 



340 Bush-Fruits 

THE GOOSEBERRY MIDGE 

Dasyneura grossulariae, Fitch 

This insect is a small, yellowish fly, with black eyes, scarcely one- 
tenth of an inch long, resembling a mosquito in form. The eggs, 
which are deposited beneath the skin of the young fruit, hatch and 
develop into small, bright yellow, oval maggots, resembling those 
of the wheat midge. These change to pupae within the fruit, and 
emerge as perfect flies in midsummer. Further than this the life 
history seems to be unknown. Their presence causes the fruit to 
turn prematurely red and become soft and putrid within. 

Remedies. — The only remedy thus far known to be effective is to 
pick and destroy all fruit which turns prematurely. 
Reference. 

Fitch, Rept. N. Y. State Ent. 1: 176. 

THE YELLOW CURRANT FRUIT-FLY 

Epochra canadensis, Loew 

This insect is a yellow or orange-colored fly, about the size of 
the common house-fly, with greenish iridescent eyes and smoky 
patches or bands across its wings. It punctures the skin of the 
young currant or gooseberry, depositing its egg just beneath. This 
soon develops into a small white grub which measures about one- 
third of an inch in length. Its presence causes the fruit to turn 
red and fall to the ground prematurely. After becoming full grown, 
the maggots leave the fruit and enter the ground, where they change 
to pupae, emerging as perfect flies early the following summer. 

This insect is most troublesome in the West, especially in the 
Mountain region, where wild groselles are abundant and afford 
breeding-grounds for it. In Colorado it is considered the worst 
enemy of these fruits. 

Remedies. — No very practicable remedy seems yet to have been 
found. The insect spends about eleven months of the year safely 
buried in the ground. No way of destroying the mature flies seems 
feasible, and the egg is deposited beneath the skin of the fruit be- 
yond the reach of insecticides. Part of the infested fruit drops pre- 



The American Currant Borer 341 

maturely and the larvae remain in it for a time. Not all the insects 
fall with the fruit, some escaping before it drops. Yet allowing 
chickens among the bushes until picking time and again thereafter, 
has been thought to help. The pupae transform within an inch of the 
surface. Frequent cultivation may therefore destroy some. 
References. 

Maine Expt. Sta. Rept. 1895: 111. 

Colo. Expt. Sta. Bull. 19: 18. 

Paine, Psyche, 19: 139. 



DARK CURRANT FRUIT-FLY 

In the Pacific Northwest a closely related species, Rhagoletis 
ribicola, Doane, termed the dark currant fruit-fly, attacks the fruit 
of both currants and gooseberries. Its life history and habits are 
much the same as the above and it must be combated in the same 
way. 
Reference. 

Wash. Expt. Sta. Bull. 36: 3. 

THE AMERICAN CURRANT BORER 

Psenocerus supernotatus, Say 

This insect, though very similar in its habits to the imported 
currant borer, belongs to an entirely different order. When ma- 
ture, instead of being a moth, it is a small, narrow, brownish beetle, 
nearly cylindrical, and varying in length from one-eighth to one- 
fourth of an inch. The larva is a small, white, round and wrinkled 
grub without feet. The life history is practically the same as that 
of the imported insect, and larvae of both are sometimes found to- 
gether in the same stalk. 

The food habits of this insect are peculiar in that it seems to prefer 
working in canes which are attacked by the currant' cane-blight, 
Botryosphceria Ribis, feeding upon the spores and growing parts of 
the fungus itself. The beetles are often found abundantly in late 
May and early June, both in the field and in material which has 
been collected and brought inside. The larval and pupal stages 



342 



Bush-Fruits 



are passed in stems which have been killed by this disease, but the 
place of egg-laying is in doubt. 

Remedies. — Cutting out and burning infested stalks will prove 
effective. 
References. 

Fitch, N. Y. Rep. 3: 416. 

Cook, Rep. Mich. Hort. Soc. 1890: 106. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta, Tech. Bull. 18. 



THE IMPORTED CURRANT WORM 

Pteronus ribesii, Scopoli 
This most familiar inhabitant of the currant and gooseberry 
bushes is a four-winged saw-fly, about the size of the common house 
fly. It first appeared in the United States in the vicinity of Roches- 
ter, N. Y., about 1857, 
being mentioned in "The 
Rural New-Yorker" of 
July 24, 1858, p. 239. 
The male is black, with 
some yellow spots, glossy 
wings and yellow legs. 
The female is larger than 
the male, bright honey 
yellow, with a black head. 
It is not in this dress, 
however, that we best 
know the insect. Its eggs 
are deposited in rows on 
the under side of the leaves, along the principal veins (Fig. 49), in 
early spring. Dr. Lintner observed a female deposit thirty eggs on 
a single currant leaf within one hour. These hatch in a few days, 
and open the season's campaign by eating small holes in the leaf. 
The eggs are laid in rows, and the young larvae at first feed in com- 
panies (Fig. 50), but later, as size and appetite increase, they scatter 
to all parts of the bush. 

The insect is fastidious in its dress during the larval stage. It first 
appears in a modest garb of dull white, which it soon exchanges for 




Fig. 49. Eggs of the imported currant worm. 



The Imported Currant Worm 



343 



green, to which many black spots are added later, these in turn 
giving place to a plain green tinged with yeUow, as it approaches ma- 
turity. When full grown, it measures about three-quarters of an 
inch in length. It then forms a silken cocoon, hidden by rubbish 
on the ground, just beneath the surface, or occasionally attached to 
stems and leaves above ground. The winged insect emerges the last 
of June or first of July, to re- 
peat the same cycle, there be- 
ing two broods a year, the last 
one passing the winter in the 
cocoon in the larva or pupa 
stage. The separate broods 
do not emerge all at once, 
hence there is a practical 
continuation of hostilities 
throughout the season. 

Remedies. — A history of the 
remedies which have been em- 
ployed against this insect since 
its advent in this country 
would afford spicy reading, 
with no lack of variety. It is 
interesting to note that the use 
of kerosene emulsion seems to 
have had its beginning in 
fighting this insect, about 
1870. 1 The following brief 
mention will show something of the range of ammunition brought 
into play against this enemy. Salt and water, Gardener's Monthly, 
1881 : 17. Tobacco water, Ibid, 1881 : 241. Sulphur sprinkled on the 
bushes when wet, Ibid, 1882: 148. Smudge with burning leather and 
sulphur under the bushes, Ibid, 1862 : 213. Red currants untouched if 
black currants are planted among them, Tilton's Journal, 8: 35. 
Copperas dissolved in water, Ibid, 8:23. Carbolate of lime, Ibid, 

Hilton's Journal, 8:23, 176-9:213. Gardener's Monthly, 1874: 
149. 




Fig. 50. Early work of the currant 
worm. 



344 Bush-Fruits 

9: 149. Tansy decoction, Ibid, 9: 246. Wood ashes applied when 
leaves are wet, Ibid, 9:309; also "Rural New-Yorker," 1897:375. 
Carbolic acid, Horticulturist, 1870: 221. Picking off leaves at base 
of bushes where most eggs are deposited before they hatch, or imme- 
diately after. Coal tar dissolved in turpentine, with slaked lime and 
water added, Ibid, 1870: 222. Knocking off the worms to let them 
fall on the hot ground when the sun is bright, Ibid, 1871: 159. Howe 
Cave fertilizer, Grafton mineral fertilizer and Colburn's currant- 
worm exterminator mentioned as ineffectual, Ibid, 1873 : 172. Mixing 
wood ashes with the soil, Ibid, 1873: 192. Mulching with tobacco 
stems, "Popular Gardening," 2: 129. Mulching with coal ashes, 
Ibid, 6: 220. Air-slaked lime and tobacco dust, Insect Life, 1: 17. 
Alum, Ibid, 1: 229. Decoction of foxglove, Gar. Month., 1874: 254. 
Soot, also rue and chamomile planted among the bushes, Tilton's 
Jour., 4: 233. Decoction of elder leaves and tobacco water, Ibid, 
7: 187. Young chickens, Hovey's Mag., 1854: 527. 

In 1869, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society offered a prize 
of twenty-five dollars for "a safe, certain and economical method, 
better than any now known, of destroying the currant worm, or 
preventing its ravages." 

The most effective treatment is spraying with arsenate- of lead at 
the rate of about two ounces to three gallons of water (two pounds 
to fifty gallons). One-fourth the amount of paris green may be 
used instead if necessary. This spraying should be done early, 
while the worms are still on the lower leaves. If neglected until 
the fruit has developed so as to make arsenites unsafe, hellebore 
at the rate of about a tablespoonful, an ounce or more, to the gallon 
of water, must be substituted. This may also be used dry, at the 
rate of one pound to five pounds of air-slaked lime. 

Allowing the bushes to be defoliated, even after the fruit is off, 
injures the crop of the following year. 
Reference. 

Marlatt, Revis. Nematinae of North Amer., 61. 



The Currant Stem-girdler 345 

THE GREEN CURRANT WORM 

Gymnonychus appendiculatus, Hartig 

This insect has been commonly known as the native currant worm, 
but it too seems to have been imported from Europe, hence that 
name should be abandoned. It is widely distributed and sometimes 
does noticeable damage in the West, but is seldom destructive in 
the East. It is somewhat closely related to the common currant 
worm but the flies are smaller in size, and both sexes are black. The 
flies appear in spring as the leaves are unfolding, and the eggs are 
laid in the edge of the leaf between the two layers. The worms are 
solid green in color, with blackish heads, never having black spots 
like the preceding species. They do not feed in groups. They reach 
full size in about five days, spin small brownish cocoons underneath 
trash or just below the surface, and emerge as perfect flies in about 
a week. There may be four or five broods in middle latitudes, each 
requiring about twenty-five days from egg to adult. 

Treatment. — The same methods employed in fighting the common 
currant worm may be used against this one. 
References. 

Walsh, Pract. Ent. 1:123. 

Riley, Mo. Rept. 9:23. 

Saunders, Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont. f., 1871: 34. 

THE CURRANT STEM-GIRDLER 

Janus integer, Norton 

This, too, is a native saw-fly, but the larvae, instead of feeding 
on the leaves, like the others, burrow in the pith of the currant 
stems. The egg is laid within the pith of the young shoots a few 
inches from the tips. After depositing the egg the female fly moves 
upward and proceeds to girdle the stem at a point from half an inch 
to an inch above where the egg was placed. The cane may be en- 
tirely severed by this girdling, or may still cling by a small portion, 
but quickly wilts, and generally soon falls away. The larva, which 
is nearly half an inch long at maturity, burrows downward, eating 
out the pith as it goes, and leaving its channel filled with dark brown- 



346 Bush-Fruits 

ish refuse. Toward autumn it eats a passage way to the outer bark, 
wraps itself in a thin silken cocoon and passes the winter in the 
lower end of its burrow. In the spring it changes to a pupa, and 
thence emerges as a perfect insect in May. The female is then a 
shining black fly with light brownish-yellow legs and the front of 
the abdomen reddish orange. She is about half an inch long by 
three-fourths of an inch broad, with wings extended. The male 
is somewhat smaller and nearly all of the abdomen is brownish- 
yellow. 

Remedies. — Cutting out and burning all injured tips is an efficient 
and practical remedy. The larva? rarely get more than six inches be- 
low where the egg is laid, and this being only an inch or so below the 
girdle, cutting away eight inches of the stem at any time during the 
summer or winter, will destroy the insect. If done soon after the 
girdle is made two or three inches will suffice. The larvae may 
readily be found by splitting open the cane. Many eggs fail to de- 
velop, and the young larvae often perish before attaining their 
growth. This checks their increase, but does not affect the injury 
for the current year. 
References. 

Marlatt, Ins. Life, 7: 387. 

Slingerland, Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. 126: 41. 

THE GROSELLE STEM-MINER 

Opostega nonstrigella, Ch. 

This is a very minute insect, the larva of which mines in the outer 
bark of currant and gooseberry shoots. Its presence is shown by fine, 
dark streaks in the outer wood near the tips. The streaks are more 
or less parallel and extend up and down the canes for a short distance, 
having rounded connections at the ends. These are the mines of 
a very tiny, whitish, thread-like larva, with whitish body and dark 
head, but so minute that it is very difficult to detect. The largest 
larvae are found in the previous season's growth or reaching across 
from that to the new shoots. The larva first mines its way toward 
the tip, turns back in the opposite direction parallel to this, again 
turning and reentering the same mine at the starting point, then 



The Less Important Enemies 347 

remining that. After making some two rounds of the channel it 
emerges to pupate in the ground. The adult is a small silvery-white 
moth. An infested twig is shown in Plate VIII. 

The direct injury caused by these miners is not likely to be serious. 
Greater harm is likely to follow from the work of fungi which may 
gain entrance through the wounds made by them. Some injury to 
gooseberry shoots has been observed from this cause. 

The injury caused by the miners has been commonly known under 
the name of "medullary spots." 

Control. — No definite means of control are known, though it has 
been suggested that cultivation about the plants during the pupal 
stage may prove helpful. 
Reference. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. 15. 

THE LESS IMPORTANT ENEMIES 

The foregoing list includes those insects which are likely to prove 
seriously injurious, but many others feed upon these plants. At 
times a few of these may do real damage. Many are general feeders 
and if groselles happen to afford the most available food they are 
likely to suffer. Among the ones most likely to occur may be men- 
tioned the following. 

Lycia cognataria, Guenee, termed the pepper and salt currant-moth 
by Slingerland and Crosby, is a general feeder, the larva of which 
seeks to escape detection by resembling a dead twig. When full 
grown it is nearly two inches long. It is seldom likely to cause serious 
harm. 

The walnut scale, Aspidiotus juglans-regiae, Comstock, sometimes 
attacks currant stems. It is closely related to the San Jose' scale but 
larger in size. The same methods of treatment should prove effective. 

Several other species of scale insects are also found on these plants. 
Green fruit-worms, leaf-rollers, climbing cut-worms, the apple leaf- 
hopper, flea-beetles, red-spider, and even the flat-headed apple-tree 
borer may be found at times, but seldom need cause concern. 



CHAPTER XVI 

DISEASES OF THE GROSELLES 

Many fungi are known to attack the genus Ribes, yet 
few do harm enough to demand consideration from an 
economic stand point. The one which is best known, and 
which has created far more discussion than any other in 
American horticultural literature, is the gooseberry mil- 
dew. This disease alone, like the phylloxera of the grape, 
has forced the development of varieties from native species, 
which doubtless would not have been done had the Eng- 
lish varieties proved successful in this climate. The fol- 
lowing list includes those diseases which are most im- 
portant. 

GOOSEBERRY MILDEW 

Spcerotheca mors-uvce, Schw., B. and C. 

This is one of the most widely known of the diseases affecting the 
genus Ribes. It first appears on the young leaves and tender tips 
of the growing shoots. The young fruits are soon attacked in the 
same way and partially or entirely checked in their growth, being 
rendered wholly unfit for use in most cases. It first appears as a 
patch of cobweb-like threads, which soon form a dense mat and 
become white and powdery from the development of, white conidial 
or summer spores. These are produced in immense numbers, and 
are readily blown about by the wind, or carried by rain, to contribute 
to the further spread of the disease. A few weeks later the winter 
spores, or ascospores, begin to develop. These are contained within 
chestnut-colored perithecia, which give a dirty brown appearance 

348 ' 



Gooseberry Mildew 349 

to the affected parts. These spores remain over winter within the 
protecting perithecium and germinate in spring, thereby spreading 
the species the succeeding year. 

In former years this disease appears to have been confined to 
America, but about 1900 it appeared in Europe and since that time 
has come to be very destructive there. European varieties are much 
more susceptible than American sorts, hence it has been able to 
spread more rapidly, even though the climate may be less favorable 
to its development. In America the disease is less serious in the 
northern portions of the United States and in Canada than farther 
south. Many English varieties or their seedlings have been intro- 
duced as mildew proof, only to suffer the same injury as previous 
sorts after a few years of general trial. The American varieties are 
not wholly exempt from attack, but are much less susceptible, and 
seldom suffer serious injury. 

Remedies. — Numberless remedies against the disease have been sug- 
gested. No less than fifteen of these have come under the writer's 
observation, most of which were reported successful in greater or less 
degree. Among them, mulching with sea weed, salt hay, green 
grass, tan bark, stones, tin cans, boards, etc., is most frequently 
mentioned. This does aid in many cases, as it helps to keep the soil 
cool, but it cannot be depended upon to afford immunity. 

This disease is more difficult to control than some others, because 
the mycelium of the fungus is more persistent. Potassium sulfide, 
at the rate of half an ounce to each gallon of water, is one of the best 
remedies known. It should be applied first as the buds are opening, 
and repeated at intervals of ten to fourteen days if the disease 
promises to be serious. Lime-sulfur in the proportion of one to 
forty, is also effective. If the disease is very abundant three or four 
sprayings may be needed. Bordeaux mixture is not a satisfactory 
remedy. 
Reference. 

Geneva, N, Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 161. 



350 Bush-Fruits 

ANTHRACNOSE 

Pseudopeziza Ribis, Kleb. 

Although not so well known as the gooseberry mildew, this disease 
is one which often causes serious damage to currants and goose- 
berries by attacking the leaves and causing them to fall prematurely. 
The disease is widely distributed in this and other countries and 
probably occurs wherever these fruits are grown. Some varieties 
are more susceptible than others. Gooseberries generally suffer 
less than currants. The fungus first appears on the upper surface 
of the older leaves, causing small, round, dark brown spots, about 
one-twenty-fifth of an inch across. A small black spot is soon formed 
in the center of each brown one, and the entire leaf turns yellow. 
The leaf and flower-stalks, young canes and fruit are also attacked. 
On the fruit it appears as small black specks, being especially no- 
ticeable on the gooseberry. See Plate XV. 

The fungus is spread during summer by spores which develop in 
a fruiting body that is formed within the tissues of the plant. When 
mature these fruiting bodies break through the surface and push 
out the summer spores in a sticky mass which readily dissolves in 
water and is scattered by wind and rain. The spores need moisture 
for germination and the disease spreads more rapidly in damp cloudy 
weather. 

Control. — Bordeaux mixture at the rate of 5-5-50, or lime-sulfur at 
the rate of 1 to 40 or 50, has been found an effective remedy. The 
first spraying should be given about the time the leaves appear, and 
be repeated at intervals of ten to twenty days. Five or six sprayings 
are generally needed, depending somewhat upon weather conditions. 
The foliage must be kept well covered throughout the summer if 
the treatment is to be thoroughly effective. The addition of lead 
arsenate, at the rate of two pounds to fifty gallons of water, 
at the first and second sprayings, will control currant worms 
as well. 

Experiments made by Cornell University Experiment Station in- 
dicate that dusting with finely-powdered sulfur, nine parts, and 
powdered arsenate of lead one part, _ is also effective in controlling 



Currant Cane-blight 351 

the disease. The arsenate of lead not only serves as an insecticide 

but adds to the sticking qualities of the dust. 

References. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 199. 

Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. 358: 194 and Circular 32. 

CURRANT LEAF-SPOT 

Septoria Ribis, Desm. 

This leaf-spot is similar to anthracnose, but the spots are larger, 
usually about an eighth of an inch in diameter, and more or less 
irregular. They are clearly marked and brown about the borders, 
with light-colored, grayish centers. As the spots grow old, several 
minute black specks appear in these grayish centers. The spots of 
anthracnose are dark-colored and often not larger than the head of 
a pin. If the spots are numerous the leaf turns yellow and falls, as 
with anthracnose. The two diseases are often found growing to- 
gether. All varieties of currants and gooseberries are attacked but 
some suffer more than others. The spores are spread in much the 
same manner as are those of anthracnose and the same weather con- 
ditions favor their development. It is thought to pass the winter 
on the fallen leaves. The appearance of the two diseases is shown 
in Plate XV. 

Control. — Leaf-spot is controlled by the same means as anthracnose. 
The treatment should be virtually the same whichever disease may be 
present. Still another fungus, Cercospora, angulata, Wint., has been 
reported on red and black currants growing with leaf-spot and yield- 
ing to the same treatment. 
References. 

Iowa Expt. Sta. Bulls. 13 and 17. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 199. 

Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. 358: 198. 

CURRANT CANE-BLIGHT 

Botryosphceria Ribis, Gross. & Dug. 

Much confusion has existed regarding the name of this disease, 
because the fungus which produces it has three distinct spore-forms. 



352 Bush-Fruits 

This has led to different classifications and names at different times. 
The first indication of the disease is the wilting of the leaves on certain 
canes or parts of canes. These soon turn brown and die. A section 
of dead wood will be found, from one to four inches in length, where 
the bark has been killed and the wood and pith invaded by the 
fungus. This prevents the movement of sap and the parts above 
wither and die. The general appearance is much like that of the 
work of cane-borers, but no burrows or insects are present. The 
whitish mycelium within the pith can be detected by the aid of a 
hand lens and sometimes even with the naked eye. 

The disease is known in different localities but has proved particu- 
larly destructive in the Hudson valley. It is there considered one of 
the chief obstacles to successful currant-culture. The plants are 
rarely killed outright, but as they grow older more and more of the 
canes are affected until so little fruiting wood remains that the planta- 
tion no longer pays. While it varies in intensity somewhat from 
year to year it never disappears from a plantation once attacked. 

A point of interest in connection with this fungus is that it appears 
to be the favorite food of the American currant-borer, Psenocerus 
supernotatus, which feeds upon the spores and growing parts, both 
in the field and in collected material. 

Control. — No practicable means of controlling the disease seems to 
be known. Careful experiments in cutting out the diseased wood 
at frequent intervals during the growing season failed to hold it 
in check, in experiments made by the Geneva, N. Y., Experiment 
Station. 
References. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bulls. 167, 357 and Tech. Bull. 18. 

Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. 125. 

CURRANT FELT-RTJST 

Cronartium ribicola, Fisch, de Wald. 

This fungus, like some other rusts, passes one of its stages on one 
plant and one on another. The other host-plant of this one is usually 
the white pine, though other five-leaved pines may be affected. The 
fungus lives from year to year in the pine, but the spores which are 



Gooseberry Cluster-cup 353 

there produced cannot infect other pines. Hence the disease cannot 
spread directly from pine to pine. It must first go to the groselles 
and from there back to pine. Various species of currants and goose- 
berries are subject to attack. Certain spores produced by the fungus 
while living on them can only infect the pine. Those of another 
type affect groselles readily, so that during summer and autumn 
the disease may spread readily among these plants. Only the leaves 
of these plants are attacked, so that the work of the fungus ends 
with the season, so far as they are concerned. Difficulty in explain- 
ing certain outbreaks of the disease have led to the suggestion that 
perhaps in some form the fungus may pass the winter on Ribes 
plants. Careful experiments have shown, however, that rarely if 
ever does such a thing occur, and then certainly not under normal 
conditions. 

Control. — This rust is a European disease, and is found chiefly on 
imported pines. Since it is only from such sources that it can spread, 
care should be taken to prevent the dissemination of such stock or its 
being allowed to remain if found. The fungus is a more serious 
enemy to the pine than to the groselles. In Europe it has driven 
the growing of white pine out of some nurseries and localities. It 
has been urged that the importation of five-leaved pine should be 
stopped and that they should be kept away from groselles in the 
nursery. If the disease is found it is recommended to destroy the 
least valuable group entirely and all diseased plants in the other. 

Just at the present time this disease appears to be causing great 
consternation in the United States. Several states have estab- 
lished quarantine regulations forbidding the importation of five- 
leaved pines and of currants and gooseberries within their borders. 
References. 

Geneva, N. Y., Expt. Sta. Bull. 374 and Tech. Bull. 2. 

Bur. of Plant Indus. Bull. 206. 

GOOSEBERRY CLUSTER-CUP 

Puccinia ribis-caricis, Kleb. 

This disease takes the form of reddish-yellow swellings on the 
leaves and fruit with clusters of minute cups imbedded in the dis- 



354 Bush-Fruits 

eased tissue. It varies much in frequency. Ordinarily it causes no 
damage, but occasionally seems to develop with unusual rapidity, 
and works serious injury. It is difficult to combat, for when the 
cluster-cups appear so that the disease is noticed, the harm for that 
year is already done. Since the causal fungus, in its winter condition, 
infests various species of common sedges the destruction of all sedges 
in the vicinity should be helpful in the control of the disease. Per- 
haps spraying for the gooseberry mildew may prevent the earliest in- 
fection. 



PART IV 
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES 

CHAPTER XVII 
OTHER SPECIES OF BUSH-FRUITS 

Although the foregoing pages describe all the bush- 
fruits which have much commercial importance in cultiva- 
tion, there are certain other types which are either coming 
into domestication or which are occasionally seen in private 
gardens. To these we shall now give attention. 

BUFFALO BERRY 

Shepherdia argentea, Nutt. Lepargyrcea argentea, Greene. 

The buffalo berry is a thorny, deciduous shrub, growing 
from 5-20 feet high, with a whitened or silvery appearance 
throughout. Its leaves are narrow, 1-1 3^ inches long, 
pointed at the base, entire, and silvery white on both 
sides. The flowers are small, yellow and dioecious. The 
fruit is round or ovoid, scarlet, or more rarely yellow, with 
a single smooth seed, and a sprightly acid and agreeable 
flavor. It is borne in very compact clusters in the axils 
of the small branches, ripening in July, but remaining on 
the bushes till frost, or later. The plant occurs through- 
out the Plains, westward to the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 

355 



356 Bush-Fruits 

and from, the Saskatchewan southward to the mountains 
of New Mexico. 

The name buffalo berry is said to have been derived 
from the custom of eating the berries as a sauce with 
buffalo meat. It has also been known as rabbit berry and 
blood berry, while Crozier states * that it has even been 
improperly called cornelian cherry. A writer in the " Gar- 
dener's Monthly" 2 speaks of it as the Nebraska currant. 

The buffalo berry has enjoyed the distinction of re- 
maining a new fruit for a very long time. In 1841, William 
Oakes, in discussing the advance of spring in eastern 
Massachusetts, mentions the buffalo berry, and inciden- 
tally states that it was then frequently cultivated. This 
was the same year that our earliest cultivated blackberry 
made its first appearance on the exhibition tables of the 
Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and some years be- 
fore either the black raspberry or the blackberry came 
into general cultivation. Yet we are still talking about 
the buffalo berry as a new fruit which ought to be intro- 
duced. Fuller, in his " Small-Fruit Culturist," published 
in 1867, gives a full account of it. The fruit possesses 
good qualities, and the plant is useful in ornamental 
planting, but it is not likely to be extensively grown as a 
fruit-producing plant, unless it should be in localities 
where other garden fruits fail. N. E. Hansen, of South 
Dakota, writes that he considers it of promise only where 
the currant does not do well. Attempts to establish it in 
Nebraska have thus far met with indifferent results. The 
fruit is abundant, but its large seed and the thorny habit 

1 Amei. Garden, 11: 650. 
2 1873: 23. 



Buffalo Berry 357 

of the plant are against it. Plants vary in the latter re- 
gard, and careful selection might develop forms compara- 
tively free from thorns. The berries vary much in size, 
commonly being about the size of currants, though some- 
times as large as small gooseberries. It generally occurs 
along the borders of streams, which indicates that it may 
need a moist soil. It is sometimes found on loose, dry 
sand, but with available moisture beneath. Its early- 
blooming period may subject it to injury from spring 
frosts, hence a cool northern slope would be desirable. 

Plants are propagated from suckers, cuttings or seeds. 
The suckers are produced but sparingly, but are readily 
separated whenever found. From the fact that a large 
number of plants produced from suckers proved to be all 
staminate, S. B. Green was led to infer * that perhaps 
the staminate plants produce more suckers than the 
pistillate. Later observations did not enable him to 
settle the point definitely. It is said to grow readily from 
cuttings taken in autumn and treated like grape and 
currant cuttings. Seeds should be planted when the fruit 
is ripe, or mixed with sand and planted the following 
spring. Fuller states 2 that the best way is to plant at 
once in rows, one or two inches deep, transplanting into 
nursery rows when one year old. He says that they will 
usually bloom the third year from seed, when the stam- 
inate and pistillate plants can be readily marked or sepa- 
rated. 

In planting, it is important to see that both sexes are 
placed together; otherwise no fruit can be produced. 

1 Bull. 18, Minn. Exp. Sta., p. 129. 

2 Small-Fruit Culturist, 252. 



358 Bush-Fruits 

Failure has often resulted from inattention to this detail. 
L. C. Corbett has pointed out * that it is unnecessary to 
leave the young plants until they flower to determine their 
sex. He says: "There is another and easier way of dis- 
tinguishing the staminate from the pistillate plants; i. e., 
by bud characters while in a dormant condition. With 
care and experience one can readily separate the two." 
In the pistillate plants the buds are smaller, more slender, 
and arranged in less compact clusters. 

The buffalo berry is worth planting as an ornamental 
shrub or small tree. Its silvery foliage is distinct and 
attractive, and its loads of fruit, if not taken by birds, 
render it a showy object throughout the closing months 
of the year. It appears to be perfectly hardy in the north- 
ern states when once established. 

The fruit has a sprightly, agreeable flavor, which makes 
it pleasant to eat from the hand. It dries, but keeps in- 
definitely. Fruit which lay in my desk for several years 
still retained its sprightliness. Frost is said to greatly im- 
prove its quality, and it may be gathered from the bushes 
at any time during winter, if not previously taken by 
birds. It makes a very good jelly, and is said to be 
gathered in quantities by the Navajo Indians, who 
probably dry it. 

The plants appear to be very productive, for they are 
loaded with berries. Yet Hoskins reported 2 that with him 
they yielded about one-fourth as much as barberries, and 
that the fruit was not very good. It may prove less fruit- 
ful in cultivation than in its native haunts. 

1 Amer. Gardening, 1895: 45. 

2 Rural New-Yorker, 1895: 826. 



The Goumi 



359 



THE GOUMI (Fig. 51) 

Eloeagnus multiflora, Thunb. 

The goumi is a low, bushy shrub, with dark gray or 
rusty brown branches, commonly unarmed, though some- 
times bearing spines. The leaves are green above, silvery 
beneath, and sprinkled with dark colored spots. The 
flowers are small, yellowish within, silvery and roughly 




Fig. 51. The goumi. 

scurfy on the outside, often dark-dotted like the lower 
surface of the leaves. They appear by the middle of May, 
and are borne at the base of short side shoots of the current 
season's growth. The fruit is oval, blunt, or slightly flat- 
tened at the ends, half an inch or more in length, cinnabar- 
red or orange colored, and covered with silvery white dots. 
It ripens in July, and is juicy and fine looking, but at 
first very astringent, leaving a disagreeable taste in the 
mouth. This quality disappears to some extent when the 
fruit is fully ripened. 

The plant grows wild in eastern Asia, from Himalaya 



360 Bush-Fruits 

and Nepal, north to China and Japan. It appears to have 
been first brought to notice in England in 1873, having 
been exhibited before the Royal Botanical and Royal 
Horticultural Societies that year. William Falconer 
writes x that in August, 1889, Ellwanger & Barry had but 
a single plant of it. Reports differ as to the edible quality 
of the fruit. William Falconer, in the above note, says 
that it is cooked and used as a sauce with meat, especially 
chicken, and "it is one of the most delicious sauces that 
ever tickled the human palate." Others do not speak so 
favorably of it, saying that cooking increases its disagree- 
able astringent qualities. Bailey says 2 that he enjoys eat- 
ing the fruit from the bushes when fully ripe, but has not 
tried it for culinary purposes. It is too acid for dessert, 
being better adapted to uses like those of the cranberry. 
It is also recommended for jelly. 

The plant is perfectly hardy in the eastern states, and 
immensely productive. Its close relation to the so-called 
Russian olive, Elceagnus angustifolia, which is a very 
reliable tree throughout the northwest, indicates that it 
may also prove hardy in that region. It is said to succeed 
well in California on various soils. In regard to propaga- 
tion, Bailey says: 2 "The goumi grows readily from seeds. 
These should be sown or stratified in summer, before they 
become dry, and allowed to freeze the following winter. 
The next spring they should germinate freely. Cuttings 
of the half-ripened wood strike readily in June or July, 
if handled in frames." 

The goumi is certainly a promising ornamental plant. 

1 American Garden, 11: 119. 

2 Bull. 117, Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta u p. 383. 



Huckleberries or Blueberries 361 

Its fruit is attractive while it lasts, and the foliage con- 
trasts well with that of other plants. In nurseries the 
plant is sometimes known as Elceagnus edulis, and in 
various places it has received mention under the name 
Elceagnus pungens; it is also known as Elceagnus longipes. 
A closely related species, Elceagnus umbellata, also known 
under the name " Silver Thorn," has been sometimes sold 
for Elceagnus longipes, and in other cases sold under its 
right name. This is larger, more open and more thorny 
than the goumi, with lighter colored branches. Its fruit, 
which is smaller and possesses no value, ripens later. The 
plant possesses about the same ornamental qualities as 
E. longipes, but according to Dippel, 1 is less hardy in 
Germany. 

HUCKLEBERRIES OR BLUEBERRIES 

The confusion existing in the use of these two names 
may as well be discussed at the outset. What one means 
by their use depends chiefly on where he chanced to live. 
Throughout the southern, middle and mid-western states, 
where these fruits are common, the name huckleberry is 
a general term applied to all fruits of the group. In New 
England this name is limited to fruits of one genus, Gay- 
lussacia, and chiefly to the common black huckleberry, 
Gaylussacia baccata, which is there so common. There 
the name blueberry is applied to plants of the genus 
Vaccinium, and more especially to Vaccinium corym- 
bosum, the "swamp blueberry" of New England or 
"high huckleberry" of the middle states. This distinction 
1 Handbuch der Laubholzkunde, 3: 207. 



362 Bush-Fruits 

would be more useful if all huckleberries were black and 
all blueberries blue. But the dangleberry, Gaylussacia 
frondosa is as much a blueberry in point of color as any 
of the others. Yet it belongs to the group known as 
huckleberries in New England. 

In this discussion the word huckleberry may be taken 
in its broader meaning, as a general term covering all 
fruits of the group. The word blueberry will be used 
for fruits or plants of the genus Vaccinium. 

The huckleberries belong to the heath family, or Eri- 
caceae, which includes a great many delightful wild wood 
plants, such as the wintergreen, the trailing arbutus, the 
heather, the mountain laurel, and the rhododendrons. 
In spite of the beauty and attractive graces displayed by 
so many of these plants, they belong to a modest and 
retiring family. They seldom mingle among the crowds 
of the open country, but withdraw to the quiet, shaded 
nooks of moist woods and mossy swamps, or climb to bare 
and rocky heights, where the solitude is even more im- 
pressive. So marked is this inherent shyness that most 
members of the family do not take kindly to cultivation. 
They pine for their woodland glens or rocky crags, no 
matter how tender the care bestowed upon them. Hence 
it happens that the huckleberries, though among the 
finest of fruits, and among the most important in the wild 
state, have been little known in cultivation up to the 
present time. 

Several causes have prevented them from receiving 
more attention. In the first place, the fruit grows wild 
in abundance over large portions of the country. Added 
to this has been the uncertainty of success in transplant- 



Huckleberries or Blueberries < 363 

ing, which with some species is considerable, and which 
is evidently supposed to be much greater with all than 
it really is. But the greatest drawback has undoubtedly 
been the difficulty experienced in propagating. The 
spread of any plant in cultivation is largely dependent 
upon the nurserymen, and one which they find it hard 
and expensive to propagate is not likely to become widely 
cultivated. Both the difficulty in propagation and the 
indifferent results often attending attempts to grow it, 
have been largely due to the fact that the peculiar needs 
of the plant have not been understood until very recently. 

The wild berry fields are yearly growing less. While 
many mountainous tracts are doubtless worth more as 
huckleberry patches than for any other purpose, unless 
it be to produce forests, on much of this land the huckle- 
berry must give place to something else as time goes on 
and civilization and agriculture improve. But the huckle- 
berry is too fine a fruit to lose, and it is a source of gratifica- 
tion to note that recent investigations are proving that 
it can be propagated and grown with full hope of success 
if the proper localities are chosen and the correct methods 
followed. The future of this fruit ought to be assured, 
for it is a promising one. It has no menacing thorns and 
its desirable qualities are numerous. 

Commercially, the huckleberry is a fruit of very con- 
siderable importance, being gathered and shipped into 
the city markets in large quantities. The receipts in New 
York city are said to exceed 2,000 bushels a day in the 
height of the season, while the entire quantity sold is 
estimated to be ten times that of any other berry. 1 The 
'Amer. Garden, 12: 18, 565. 



364 Bush-Fruits 

annual huckleberry crop of Wisconsin has been estimated 
at 20,000 bushels, valued at between $60,000 and $80,000. 

A few instances are on record of success in a commercial 
way under cultivation or semi-cultivation. These have 
usually consisted in treating wild huckleberry land in such 
a way as to increase the returns from plants already grow- 
ing upon it. This may often be done to advantage. In 
swamps, competing growth may be cut away if the stand 
of plants will warrant. On wild land where low huckle- 
berries are abundant, frequently burning over the area 
will improve the returns. This practice, by irresponsible 
parties, has often caused serious fires in the mountain 
regions of the Atlantic states. Some plan of encouraging 
and protecting the wild growth is about the only method 
which promises success with the low-growing kinds. 

The high huckleberry or swamp blueberry has often 
been tried under garden culture, with varying degrees 
of success. Transplanting wild plants is not a difficult 
operation. The writer's experience, showed no greater 
proportion of loss than is likely to occur in moving other 
wild plants. Success depends not so much on transplant- 
ing as in the behavior of the plants afterward. In some 
cases they have thriven and borne well; in others they 
have gradually dwindled away and disappeared. 

Among the attempts made to bring this plant under 
domestication, should be mentioned the work of A. S. 
Fuller, Jackson Dawson, of the Arnold Arboretum, Benja- 
min G. Smith, formerly Secretary of the American Pomo- 
logical Society, and others. Dawson probably achieved 
greater success in propagating the blueberry than any other 
man up to recent times. 



Huckleberries or Blueberries 365 

Investigations carried on by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, under the direction of Frederick V. 
Coville, 1 have thrown a flood of light upon the whole 
problem of bringing these plants under domestication. 
His experiments have been chiefly with species of the 
genus Vaccinium, which are most desirable as fruit-bearing 
plants. The following discussion of methods of propaga- 
tion and culture is based on Coville's published results. 
The illustrations used were also furnished by him. 

It has long been known that there is associated with the 
roots of these plants, a peculiar fungous growth, which has 
much *to do with the nutrition of the plants. Both the 
blueberry and the fungus appear to profit by the partner- 
ship. It is believed that the fungus assists the plant in 
obtaining nitrogen. If the blueberry is to thrive, the con- 
ditions must be right for the fungus to thrive also. Coville 
has proved, what others had suspected, that to thrive 
the blueberry must have an acid soil. His observations 
appear to have been chiefly with Vaccinium corymbosum, 
but doubtless apply equally well to other members of the 
huckleberry family. The particular kind of acid soil 
formed by a mixture of sand and peat is the one in which 
the plants thrive best. In soils with an alkaline or neu- 
tral reaction, such as those of a well-manured garden, 
or of limestone regions, good results cannot be expected. 
Free access of air to the soil is also essential. Although the 
swamp blueberry, as its name indicates, is often found 
growing in swamps, it will not thrive where its roots are 

1 See "Experiments in Blueberry Culture," Bulletin 193, Bureau 
of Plant Industry, and "Directions for Blueberry Culture," Bulletin 
334, U. S. Dept. of Agr. 



366 Bush-Fruits 

permanently covered with water. Some species of low 
blueberries thrive on dry, rocky hillsides, but Vaccinium 
corymbosum, the one best adapted to garden culture, de- 
mands a soil with an abundant moisture supply. 

Coville sums up the fundamental requirements of suc- 
cessful blueberry culture in the following words. " (1) An 
acid soil, especially one composed of peat and sand; 
(2) good drainage and thorough aeration of the surface 
soil; and (3) permanent but moderate soil moisture." He 
adds that with these conditions present, the root fungus 
will care for itself, since enough will be carried by the roots 
of the plant when set, to supply all needs. 

With a knowledge of these essentials, it is evident that 
commercial ventures in the culture of this fruit should 
be undertaken only where these conditions prevail nat- 
urally. Late frosts are dangerous, particularly so because 
this type of soil conditions is likely to occur in locations es- 
pecially subject to frost. Flooding is suggested as a possi- 
ble means of preventing frosts, where conditions permit it. 

Soil mixture 

For use in propagation, and in starting plants in the 
field in a small way, where the needed soil conditions do 
not exist naturally, the following mixture is advised: — 
1 part of clean sand, 9 parts of upland peat, either chopped 
or sifted, and 3 parts of broken flower-pots. If the latter 
are not available, more sand or sand and gravel should be 
used. No loam, lime, nor manure should be used. Man- 
ure is thought to injure the friendly root-fungus. 

The peat best suited to the purpose is that found in 
thickets of mountain laurel, clumps of low blueberries, or 




Plate XVI. Blueberries.— Propagation above; fruiting bush below. 



Huckleberries or Blueberries 367 

from rotting oak leaves. Oak leaves alone, stacked and 
rotted for a time will serve. An interesting point brought 
out is that some leaves, especially maple, rot so quickly 
that within a year they pass the acid stage and become 
alkaline. They are then unsuitable and even fatal to the 
young plants. Oak leaves may reach the same condition 
in time if no fresh material is added, but decay more slowly. 

Propagation in general 

The difficulty of propagation has been one of the 
chief hindrances to more general cultivation of these 
fruits. Plants may be grown from seeds but this is 
not advised. The process is somewhat troublesome, 
and the results uncertain. Even when the seeds are 
taken from large fruit only, many of the resulting plants 
may bear inferior fruit. Budding and grafting may be 
used, but have little to recommend them, except in ex- 
perimental work, because young shoots are thrown up 
from the roots. Four different methods of propagation 
are described by Coville, in "Bulletin 334," above cited. 
Each has proved successful, but no one has proved uni- 
formly best under all conditions. The methods are termed 
"stumping," "tubering," winter cuttings and root- 
cuttings. They will be briefly described, but for more de- 
tailed directions the reader is referred to the above bulletin. 

Stumping. — This is considered the easiest method. At 
any time from late fall to early spring, all or part of the 
stems of a plant are cut off close to the ground. A frame 
is placed around the stump and filled with a mixture of 2 
to 4 parts of sand, to 1 of peat, covering the stumps 2 to 
3 inches deep. This must be kept moist during summer. 



368 



Bush-Fruits 



The shoots which spring up from these stumps, through 
the sand and peat, develop the character of root-stocks, 
and throw out roots abundantly. They should be left in 
place the following winter but should be protected with 

a mulch. Early the follow- 
ing spring the sand is re- 
moved, and the shoots cut 
away from the parent stump. 
The tops are cut back to 
about three buds. A plant 
thus treated is shown at 
Fig. 52. 

The young plants are 
placed in three-inch pots in 
a mixture of two parts peat 
to one of sand. The pots 
are then plunged in sand in 
a cool greenhouse or cold- 
frame. The frame is shaded 
with muslin and the tem- 
perature not allowed to ex- 
ceed 65° F. Ventilation 
should be limited, and water 

Fig. 52. New shoots developed by given only often enough to 

stumping. ° . 

keep the soil moist. New 
root-growth begins after the first twig-growth stops. 
Secondary twig-growth indicates success. 

Tubering. — The term "tubering " is applied to a special 
method of growing hardwood cuttings. The simplest 
plan suggested is as follows. The cuttings are made in 
late fall, from unbranched pieces of the old wood, pref- 




Huckleberries or Blueberries 



369 



erably that which has grown in exposed situations and 
well stored with starch. These may vary in size from one- 
fourth inch to an inch, in diameter, and are cut 3 to 4 
inches long. They are stored over winter in boxes of clean 
moist sphagnum moss, at a temperature of about 40° F. 
Early in spring they 
are pressed into beds 
of clean sand, in a 
coldframe, to about 
the depth of their own 
thickness. The sand 
is then covered with 
a one-inch layer of 
sifted peat two parts, 
and sand one part. 
The frames are shaded Fi * 
by a muslin frame- 
work about seven feet from the ground. No ventilation 
is given until most of the plants are rooted, about midsum- 
mer. The shades and sash are removed early in October. 
Late in autumn they are removed from the frames, the 
stronger ones going directly to field plantations. The 
weaker ones are set in nursery rows for another season's 
growth before being planted. 

Shading the frames is considered important in all 
methods. Locating them on the north side of buildings 
may reduce the need for shade but even then it will be 
needed morning and afternoon in summer, when the sun 
may reach them. Figs. 53 and 54 show tubered cuttings 
in different stages of development. 

Winter cuttings. —These are ordinary stem-cuttings, 




'Tubered " cutting with young 
shoots developing. 



370 



Bush-Fruits 



made from wood of the previous season's growth, cut 
four or five inches long. They may be taken in the fall 
and stored, or cut when wanted. They may be started in 
the greenhouse and transferred to the coldframe later, or 

put in the coldframe at 
first. The important 
point is to avoid high 
temperatures. 

For the cutting-bed a 
one-inch layer of clean 
sphagnum is placed on 
a good drainage founda- 
tion. This is covered 
with three inches of clean 
sand. The base of the 
cutting should reach 
nearly to the sphagnum. 
The frame must be 
shaded and the sash 

Fig. 54. "Tubered" cutting with shoot tightly closed to secure a 

rooting at the base. saturated atmosphere. 

When the first twig-growth has been completed, the 
bed is mulched with about half an inch of sifted peat 
two parts, and sand one part. When the cuttings 
have begun to root, which is indicated by secondary 
twig-growth, ventilation is begun. This must be very 
slight at first, and increased slowly, through a period of 
several weeks, before full exposure is given. Young plants 
are very susceptible to injury from over-ventilation during 
the propagating period. These winter cuttings are best 
left in the coldframe over winter, being mulched with 




Huckleberries or Blueberries 371 

leaves. In early spring they are transferred to a nursery- 
bed of peat and sand in the open field. This method of 
propagation requires close attention, and not all the 
cuttings can be expected to succeed. Young plants grown 
from cuttings are shown at Plate XVI. 

Root-cuttings. — Root-cuttings, three to four inches long, 
made from roots of all sizes, have given excellent results. 
They are started in coldframes, with the same treatment 
given to tubered stem-cuttings. 

After culture 

All young plants, when once rooted, are best exposed to 
winter freezing. Hot summer suns may injure the young 
leaves and growing tips. Partial shade will obviate this. 

A peculiar habit of root-growth is found to be charac- 
teristic of blueberry plants. A knowledge of this is im- 
portant in transplanting. No root-growth is made in 
spring until the plants are in full leaf, are nearly through 
flowering, and have made most of their twig-growth. All 
this early growth is made chiefly from the food stored up 
the preceding year. 

This means that in spring planting it is important, 
either to move all the roots, or to cut back the tops 
severely. With young, nursery-grown plants, care will 
secure the roots unharmed. When wild plants are to be 
brought to the garden, the tops are best cut to stumps 
which reach only two or three inches above the ground 
when planted. Such plants can be divided when replant- 
ing, often affording a number of stumps with roots at- 
tached. Early spring is the best time for planting, when 
plants are cut back in this way. 

With unpruned plants, early fall planting gives excel- 



372 



Bush-Fruits 




Fig. 55. Comparative effects of self- and cross-pollination. 

lent results. This has been found to be an especially 
favorable time for removing potted plants to the field. 

Interpollination is an important factor in fruit pro- 
duction. This is accomplished chiefly by bumblebees 
and other wild bees. The corolla is too long for the honey- 



Huckleberries or Blueberries 373 

bee. Self-pollination gives inferior results at best; some 
plants are almost completely sterile. Furthermore, every 
plant propagated from a parent plant by any of the 
methods indicated is essentially that same plant, so far as 
this factor is concerned. This means that plants propa- 
gated from more than one bush should be grown. When 
we come to have varieties, it will not be wise to plant a 
single variety alone. (See Fig. 55.) 

For field planting, in a commercial way, a distance of 
eight feet apart, each way, is ad vised. As already indicated 
growing the fruit for market should only be undertaken 
where naturally favorable conditions prevail. The ideal 
soil is thought to be a peat covering with sand subsoil. 
The water-table should be at least a foot below the sur- 
face during the growing season. Summer fallowing the 
previous season, to destroy the wild growth, is advised 
on untilled land. Surface cultivation as for other fruits is 
to be given after planting. 

Probable returns 

The outcome of commercial huckleberry culture is 
yet to be determined. Young plants bear little until 
they are three or four years old, but are as long-lived 
as apple trees. They will not need replanting during 
one man's lifetime, and often reach a height of six to 
eight feet in the open field. Coville cites an Indiana 
plantation which was started in 1889 by setting unselected 
wild plants in a natural bog. Records for a period of six 
years show an average gross return of $243.44 an acre. 
The average selling price of the fruit was 14^ cents a 
quart. The cost of picking was 5 cents a quart. The 



374 Bush-Fruits 

average profit to the acre, after deducting the cost of care, 
harvesting, marketing, interest, taxes, depreciation, and 
so on is placed at $116. With selected plants of improved 
quality, the fruit output will naturally be better. 

Home culture 

It is in the home-garden, especially, that the culture 
of this fruit should be greatly increased. Conditions 
there will seldom be ideal, and special care will be needed 
to secure results. The plants should be set in large 
holes or wide trenches, about a foot deep in a mixture 
of four parts peat or half-rotted oak leaves, to one part 
sand, which should be well mixed. Liberal dressings of 
similar material applied to the surface and worked in 
with the cultivation should also prove beneficial. Fre- 
quent repetitions of these surface applications will tend 
to maintain the acid conditions which the plant needs. A 
mulch of oak leaves, if it can be held in place, is useful. 

If fertilizers are needed, chemicals which leave an acid 
residue in the soil should be chosen. , Nitrogen may be 
obtained from sulfate of ammonia, phosphorus from acid 
phosphate, and potash from sulfate or muriate. No lime 
or wood ashes should be allowed near huckleberry plants. 

Varieties 

While named varieties are not yet available, the 
work done at the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture has shown much progress in the development of 
improved sorts. Wild plants vary greatly in the size 
and character of fruit. Two distinct types of the swamp 
blueberry are common in Rhode Island. 



Huckleberries or Blueberries 375 

By selecting the best wild plants as a basis of work, 
then crossing and hybridizing these, some fine sorts have 
been developed in Coville's work. Individual fruits, 
under unusual conditions, have even reached a diameter 
of nearly three-fourths of an inch. Hybrids between 
Vaccinium corymbosum and V actinium pennsylvanicum, the 
low blueberry, are giving some promising results. A 
hybrid plant of this parentage, four years old, is shown 
at Plate XVI. 

The future of this particular type of huckleberry or 
blueberry now looks bright. We may hope to bring it to 
our gardens and enjoy its fruits. The owner of land which 
is too wet and sour for ordinary farm crops may find profit- 
able use for such land in the growing of this crop in a com- 
mercial way. 

Species involved 

Improvement work has been confined to the genus 
Vaccinium, this being the one most generally prized 
and the most promising for future development. Two 
species of Gaylussacia bear fruit of value, that of the 
common black huckleberry, G. baccata, better known as 
G. resinosa, being extensively gathered for market. 

The most important difference between these two genera 
is that in Gaylussacia the fruit is ten-celled, each cell con- 
taining a single seed, or properly a little stone, while in 
Vaccinium there are several seeds in each cell, these being 
small, and the fruit forming a pulpy berry. The seeds 
of the former, while less numerous, are far more trouble- 
some than those of the latter. The leaves and branchlets 
of Gaylussacia are clammy with resinous dots when young. 

Many species belonging to these two genera are known, 



376 Bush-Fruits 

chiefly in America, but only a few need be considered here. 
The following are most important as fruit-bearing plants, 
with possible adaptability to garden culture. 

Gayltjssacia frondosa, Torr. & Gray. Blue Tangleberry or 
Dangleberry. 

This is a shrub growing from 3 to 5 feet high, with slender, diver- 
gent branches, which in the new growth are reddish yellow, while 
the older wood is covered with ashy gray bark. Its leaves are pale 
and glaucous or white beneath. The flowers are borne in long, loose, 
drooping racemes. The fruit is large, sweet, and pleasant, with a 
slight acidity, dark blue with a bluish white bloom, and ripening late. 

The species is found along the Atlantic coast from New England 
to Florida and westward to Kentucky and Louisiana. In New 
England it is said to occur only near the coast. By some this is 
considered promising for cultivation. It grows more readily under 
culture than the following species, but seems to lack in productive- 
ness. 

Gayltjssacia baccata, K. Koch. (Gaylussada resinosa, Torr. & 
Gray.) Black Huckleberry. 

This is a much branched, rigid shrub, from 1 to 3 feet high. Its' 
flowers are dull, reddish yellow, and borne in short, one-sided racemes 
or clusters. The fruit is sweet, crisp and firm, shiny black, without 
bloom. A white-fruited variety is occasionally found, and others 
are reported having pear-shaped berries, bluish fruit, or that which 
is covered with a bloom. 

This species is found in open woods, on dry, rocky hills, and in 
swamps, from Newfoundland to Georgia, and westward to Minne- 
sota and the Saskatchewan. It is the common black huckleberry 
of the market, and is well adapted to commercial purposes, owing 
to its firmness and consequent shipping qualities. It is said to be 
even more difficult to propagate and transplant than other huckle- 
berries. The flavor of the fruit is altogether different from that of 
the Vacciniums. It possesses a strong, musky, or mawkish twang, 
hard to describe. For this reason it is not well liked by most persons, 
in the fresh stage. When cooked this flavor largely disappears. 



Huckleberries or Blueberries 377 

The resulting sauce is richer but altogether different from that of the 
blueberries. It is found abundantly along the New England coast 
but does not appear to be highly prized. Late in the season much 
of the fruit becomes wormy. Another objection to the fruit of this 
genus is found in the little, hard, sharp-edged nutlets, which give 
the fruit a seedy character. The smaller the fruit the more notice- 
able this becomes, since there are ten of these stone-like seeds in 
each berry. 
Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, Lam. Low or Dwarf Blueberry. 

This is a low-growing shrubby little plant, seldom over a foot 
in height, with green, angular or warty branches. The leaves are 
bristly serrulate, smooth and shining on both sides, and the flowers 
are white or pale pink. The fruit is sweet and fine flavored, com- 
monly blue with a glaucous bloom, though forms with nearly black 
fruit sometimes occur. 

This is the earliest of the huckleberries to ripen, and one of the 
finest. It is not so firm as the preceding species, but with careful 
handling may be carried long distances, and is extensively sold in 
market. It is found upon dry, rocky hillsides and mountains from 
New Jersey to Illinois, and northward to Newfoundland and the 
Saskatchewan. It has not yielded readily to the demands of culti- 
vation. The best results have ordinarily come from simply improv- 
ing its natural conditions. A dwarf form of it, var. angustifolium, 
Gray, occurs in New England to Newfoundland. 
Vaccinium canadense, Kalm. Canadian Blueberry. 

This is a low shrub, 1 to 2 feet high, with light green wood, and 
much resembling V. pennsylvanicum. Its leaves are broader, entire, 
and downy on both sides, the crowded branchlets being also downy. 
The fruit is blue-black, ripening later than that of V. pennsyl- 
vanicum. 

The species occurs in swamps and moist woods from Newfound- 
land to the mountains of Pennsylvania, and westward to Minnesota 
and the Rocky Mountains. It is primarily a northern species, and 
not common in the United States except in northern New England. 
From there and the Canadian provinces it is sent to the Boston 
market in considerable quantities after the home supply of the pre- 
ceding species is exhausted. 




Fig. 56. High-bush huckleberry or blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum. 



Huckleberries or Blueberries 379 

Vaccinium vacillans, Kalm. Low or Pale Blueberry. 

This is a low, glabrous shrub, from 1 to 3 feet high, with yellowish 
green stem and branchlets. The leaves are smooth and very pale 
and glaucous, at least on the under side. The berries are large and 
sweet, generally with a blue bloom, though sometimes blacky ripen- 
ing from the last of July to September. The fruit is borne in clusters 
at the end of leafless branches of the previous season's growth, and 
the plants are very prolific. 

The species occurs chiefly in dry and sandy soil, from New Eng- 
land to Michigan and Iowa, and southward to Missouri and North 
Carolina. Growing as it does in dry soils, being a pretty little shrub 
for ornamental purposes, and a prolific bearer, with fruit of fine 
quality, it is one of the species which would seem to be promising 
for cultivation, or for use in hybridizing with other species. 

Vaccinium corymbosum, Linn. Swamp Blueberry. High 
Huckleberry. (Fig. 56.) 

A tall, handsome shrub, from 4 to 10 feet high, with yellowish 
green branches which turn to a light gray with age, the bark on old 
stems becoming rough and peeling off in shreds. The leaves are 
narrow, mostly egg-shaped, either smooth or downy. The flowers 
are large, and borne on the extremities of the previous year's growth, 
as in the preceding species. The fruit ripens from August to the 
latter part of September, and is widely variable in shape, size, color 
and flavor. 

The species varies greatly, and several botanical varieties have 
been described. It grows chiefly in swamps and moist woods, though 
sometimes found in dry, open pastures. It has a wide distribution, 
occurring throughout the eastern half of North America, from New- 
foundland to Louisiana. It is the most promising of all the huckle- 
berries for cultivation. It is the species with which most progress 
has already been made in the way of propagation and culture. 

Insects attacking the huckleberry 

In Washington County, Maine, is a tract of country 
comprising some two hundred fifty thousand acres, known 
as the "Blueberry Barrens." It is a region made up of 



380 Bush-Fruits 

level or slightly rolling land, interspersed with lakes and 
swamps, where the low blueberries spring up in great 
abundance as soon as the land is burned over. The land 
is valued at about $50 an acre and the average yield of 
berries is about 60 bushels an acre. The fruit is gathered 
with rakes similar to cranberry rakes, a man being able 
to average about three bushels per clay. During the pick- 
ing season whole families move to the locality and live in 
tents while employed in the berry fields. A number of 
canneries are located in the vicinity to which the greater 
part of the fruit goes. The land is usually burned over 
every third year. This destroys the crop for that year 
but greatly increases it for the two succeeding years. 

In this region insects have become more or less trouble- 
some. A study of these enemies has been made by Wil- 
liam C. Woods, and his findings are reported in "Bulletin 
No. 244" of the Maine Experiment Station, to which the 
reader is referred for a full account of this interesting in- 
dustry and details of the insects found. 

One of the most important enemies is the apple-maggot, 
Rhagoletis pomonella, Walsh., or a somewhat distinct 
strain of the species which seems to be found on the blue- 
berry. The life history of the insect appears to be prac- 
tically the same as on the apple. The insect has been found 
on different species, both of Vaccinium and Gaylussacia, 
though apparently not in other parts of the state. It is 
also found on the wild haw, which it is thought may have 
been the original host-plant of the insect. No means of 
control is suggested except systematic burning, and de- 
stroying the maggots which are found when the berries 
are winnowed. 



Juneberries 381 

A leaf-bettle, Galerucella decora, Say, was found to be 
destructive to the foliage of the low blueberries. Spraying 
would doubtless control it but is hardly feasible under 
ordinary conditions. 

Among other insects mentioned, the currant fruit- 
weevil, Pseudanthonomus validus, Dietz., is of interest. 
This has been reported as a serious pest of the currant 
in Montana, and is found attacking two species of low 
blueberry in this region in Maine. Several other species 
are also treated. 

JUNEBERRIES 

The juneberry has received but little attention in cul- 
tivation, though not from any difficulty in growing it, 
as with the .huckleberry. The greatest impetus to its 
culture came with the introduction of the variety known 
as Success. This was brought to notice by H. E. Van 
Deman, then chief of the Division of Pomology of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. It was found 
by him in Kansas, 1 having been brought from Illinois, 
where it had been grown from seeds gathered in the moun- 
tains of Pennsylvania. Van Deman gave it the name 
Success, and began selling plants about 1878. Some ten 
years later the stock was sold to J. T. Lovett, of New 
Jersey. 

The juneberry has often been confused with the huckle- 
berry in parts of the West. It was grown for a number of 
years by James Hall, of Davenport, Iowa, who, under the 
name huckleberry, recommended its extensive planting 
1 Annals of Horticulture, Bailey, 1891: 51. 



382 Bush-Fruits 

as especially adapted to that region. On the strength 
of these recommendations many wild blueberry plants are 
said to have been sold throughout the state, much to the 
dissatisfaction of the purchasers. The true huckleberries 
or blueberries have never succeeded in this region, and 
only those who were deceived, and got the juneberry in- 
stead, obtained any real value for their investment. On 
the strength of these misrepresentations, the Iowa State 
Horticultural Society passed resolutions of censure, cau- 
tioning all persons against buying or planting any blue- 
berry or huckleberry plants. 1 The Massachusetts Horti- 
cultural Society awarded a silver medal to Benjamin 
G. Smith for introducing the dwarf juneberry into that 
state, 2 and it is interesting to note that his plants were 
obtained from Davenport, Iowa, whence it was being so 
widely boomed as huckleberry or blueberry. The june- 
berry itself thrives well throughout the West, especially 
the western species, Amelanchier alnifolia. 

The future of the juneberry is in doubt. It seems to be 
making little progress at present. Yet it thrives through- 
out the entire country, being especially promising upon 
the Plains, where many of our bush-fruits do not succeed. 
One point of great importance is its ability to endure late 
spring frosts. Of this one grower says: 3 "Frosts that 
killed potato tops to the ground had no effect in destroy- 
ing even a portion of this wonderful plant's product, 
even though the frost came as late as the middle of May." 
The fruit is mild, sweet and pleasant. It lacks character 

1 Trans. Iowa Hort. Soc, 1877: 203. 

2 Gardener's Monthly, 1878: 306. 

3 Nebr. State Hort. Soc. Rept., 1896: 197. 



Juneberries 383 

and sprightliness as a table fruit, but this defect is readily 
overcome by adding a few currants, cherries or goose- 
berries, which are available at the same season of the 
year. To be at its best it should be used when perfectly 
fresh, for it suffers much in flavor by standing. This may 
prevent it from becoming popular as a market berry. 
In any case, it ought to be primarily a home berry. It is 
so easily grown, and the plants themselves are so attractive 
that it may well find place in any home-garden, however 
small. 

One grave obstacle stands in the way of its successful 
culture. Every bird in the region will be there to help 
harvest the fruit. Only two remedies are apparent — 
either grow more juneberries than the birds can hold, 
or plant but few, in close clumps, and protect them with 
netting. Benjamin G. Smith reports x having been able to 
keep the birds away by scarecrows, which were changed 
in position two or three times a day. Experience with 
other fruit leads to the conclusion that very lively scare- 
crows would be needed to interfere with the birds of most 
localities. In Europe, cheap netting is used for protecting 
cherries and similar fruits, and this method could be 
adopted for a few clumps of juneberries with slight ex- 
pense. 

The productiveness of the dwarf varieties is beyond 
dispute. The plants are covered with a mass of fruit until 
ripe enough for the birds to consider it worth their atten- 
tion. In Nebraska it ripens from June 10 to July 4, in 
New York somewhat later. It will thrive upon any soil, 
as it is found from the lowest swamps to the highest 
1 Gardener's Monthly, 1878: 306. 



384 Bush-Fruits 

mountain tops. When once established it will care for 
itself, if necessary, though benefited by good cultivation 
and attention. It is absolutely hardy, and a plantation 
will continue to thrive and bear fruit almost indefinitely. 

The juneberry is said to propagate from seeds as readily 
as apples. It is more commonly multiplied from the 
sprouts which spring up around the base of the plants. 
One Iowa grower recommends root-grafting it on apple 
seedlings. 1 It has been recommended as a satisfactory 
stock upon which to graft the pear. 2 It has also been re- 
ported from Illinois as a particularly suitable stock for the 
quince, 3 causing the fruit to mature earlier and endure the 
winter better. 

Enemies will doubtless appear, should the juneberry 
come to be generally cultivated. Already it has been 
noted 4 that the plum curculio is frequently found among 
the bushes, and many of the fruits are stung by them. 
The berries were also found to be injured by a coleopter- 
ous larva, not determined. 

The different species are so variable in the wild state 
that varieties would doubtless multiply rapidly were 
they to come into general cultivation. Already several 
have been named. The one known as Success, previously 
mentioned, is doubtless the most widely known. 

The genus Amelanchier, to which the juneberries be- 
long, is closely related to the genus Pyrus, which includes 
the apple and pear. The species are not numerous, and all 

1 Trans. Iowa Hort. Soc, 1880: 130. 

2 Gardener's Monthly, 1861: 229, 300 and 361. 

3 Trans. Iowa Hort. Soc. 1879: 440. 

4 Insect Life, 3:219. 



Juneberries 



385 




Fig. 57. Amelanchier alnifolia. 

are closely related. The following are of most interest 
from a horticultural standpoint: 

Amelanchier canadensis, Medic. Shad Bush. Juneberry. 

This is the best known form in the eastern part of the country. 



386 Bush-Fruits 

It often reaches a height of forty feet, with a tall straight trunk 
and small spreading branches, forming a narrow, oblong, round- 
topped tree. It occurs from Newfoundland to Florida, west to 
Louisiana and eastern Nebraska, and farther northward to the 
Rocky Mountains. Though a desirable ornamental tree, its large 
size is against it as a fruit-bearing plant. Many of the trees growing 
wild appear to be sterile. The hills are dotted with their white 
bloom in early springtime, but comparatively few fruiting trees are 
found in summer. 
A. oblongifolia, Roem. Dwarf Juneberry. 

This is a low plant, from two to five feet high, bearing smaller 
flowers than the preceding species. It is found from Quebec and 
New Brunswick to Virginia, and west to Missouri and Minnesota, 
and is one of the most promising forms for cultivation. The variety 
known as Success belongs here. 
A. Bartramiana, Roem. Northern Dwarf Juneberry. 

This is another dwarf form, two to four feet high, found in cold 
swamps and mountain bogs from New York and Northern New 
England northward to Labrador and Newfoundland. It is highly 
recommended as an ornamental plant and the fruit is said to be 
large, dark blue-purple, with a heavy bloom, often nearly twice as 
long as broad, sweet, with a more decided flavor than that of the 
other Juneberries. 

A. alnifolia, Nutt. Western Service Berry or Shad Bush. (Fig. 
57.) 

This is a low shrub, usually only a few feet high, though rarely 
becoming a slender tree. The leaves are broad, oval or nearly cir- 
cular in outline, and the fruit ripens from June to September, accord- 
ing to location. It is dark blue, or sometimes nearly black, covered 
with a glaucous bloom, very sweet and juicy, and is said to reach 
from half an inch to nearly an inch in diameter. The species is 
widely distributed over the western half of the continent, extending 
eastward as far as the western shores of Lake Superior and the 
northern peninsula of Michigan. It is one of the most promising 
species as a fruit-producing plant. Its great productiveness and 
the large size and good quality of its fruit are likely to place it in 
the lead for the western half of the country, at least. 



The Tree Cranberry 



387 




Fig. 58. The tree cranberry. 
THE TKEE CRANBERRY (Fig. 58) 

The so-called tree cranberry or cranberry-tree is not a 
cranberry in any sense of the word. It has received this 
name owing to a superficial resemblance of its fruit to 
that of the cranberry. Though round and red like the 
cranberry, in structure and flavor it is entirely different. 
The plant belongs to the honeysuckle family, the species 



388 Bush-Fruits ' 

being Viburnum Opulus, Linn. It is a tall and nearly 
smooth shrub, with gray bark, scaly buds and large, 
three to five-lobed leaves, the lobes pointed and com- 
monly few-toothed. The flowers are white, borne in 
broad, flat clusters, and are followed by the bright-colored 
fruit which is carried on the tips of the branches, well 
above the leaves. The species is much better known in 
the modified form in which it commonly appears in cul- 
tivation, which is the guelder rose or snowball so fre- 
quently planted upon lawns. In that form it has become 
entirely sterile, by the culture adopted to bring out the 
spherical head of bloom. In the wild type only the mar- 
ginal florets are neutral. 

The species is found wild in the northern parts of 
Europe, Asia and North Africa, and is in many respects 
a more desirable ornamental plant than its modified de- 
scendant. Although pleasing in habit and foliage, it is 
especially attractive in fruit. About the last of July the 
berries take on a greenish yellow or orange hue, tinged 
with bright red on the side toward the sun. From that 
time until spring, unless taken by the birds, which com- 
monly do not molest it when other food is abundant, the 
fruit is always attractive. When ripe in autumn it be- 
comes a brilliant deep scarlet and remains so until severe 
frosts, which cause it to become somewhat duller, though 
it will remain bright all winter if allowed to hang. This 
renders the plant attractive throughout the greater portion 
of the year. Its flowers, too, are as graceful as those of the 
sterile form. The American tree cranberry is somewhat 
different from the Old World plant, and botanists now 
separate it as Viburnum americanum. 



The Barberry 389 

The plant deserves praise as an ornamental, but as a 
fruit-producing plant it is of doubtful value. The fruit 
is very sour, somewhat resembling the true cranberry. 
It is used to some extent as a substitute for it, and makes 
good sauce or jelly, though too astringent to suit some 
palates. The large size of its seeds is a serious objection 
to its use for fruit. These are single hard stones, which 
seem to make up the greater part of the fruit. Except 
for this it might have value in some localities. Its fruit 
falls in much the same class as that of the barberry and 
the buffalo berry, though not so pleasant as the latter. 
Its name, tree cranberry, is a standing temptation to 
smooth-tongued agents to recommend the plant as a sat- 
isfactory substitute for the cranberry, suited to upland 
soils and regions in which the cranberry does not succeed. 
In such cases it must prove a disappointment, though 
worthy of praise for the purposes to which it is adapted. 
The plant is perfectly hardy, so far as cold is concerned, 
and can be grown in almost any soil or location. It may 
be propagated by layers, by hard-wood cuttings, or by 
seeds, though the latter require two years for germination. 
The plant is much subject to the attacks of plant-lice, 
which often cause its leaves and young shoots to curl 
and grow distorted. This seriously injures the appear- 
ance of the plant in seasons which favor the spread of 
these pests. 

THE BARBERRY 

Unlike many of the fruits which we have been consider- 
ing, the barberry has once been popular and has since 
declined in favor. It may, therefore, be appropriate to 



390 Bush-Fruits 

substitute for a modern description of the plant that given 
by Gerarde in 1597. He says: "The barberry plant is an 
high shrub or bush, having many young straight shoots 
and branches very full of white prickly thorns, the rind 
whereof is smooth and thin, the wood itself yellow: the 
leaves are long, very greene, sleightly nicked about the 
edges, and of a soure taste: the flours be yellow, standing 
in clusters upon long stems: in their places come up long 
berries, slender, red when they be ripe, with a little hard 
kernell or stone within, of a soure and sharp taste: the 
root is yellow, disperseth it self far abroad, and is of a 
wooddy substance. Wee have in our London gardens 
another sort, whose fruit is like in form and substance, 
but one berry is as big as three of the common kinde, 
wherein consisteth the difference. We have likewise 
another without any stone, the fruit is like the rest of the 
Barberries both in substance and taste." 

In regard to its distribution, Gerarde says: "The bar- 
berry bush grows of it selfe in untoiled places and desart 
grounds, in woods and the borders of fields, especially 
about a gentlemans house called Mr. Monke, at a village 
called Iver two miles from Colebrooke, where most of the 
hedges are nothing else but Barberry bushes. They are 
planted in most of our English gardens." 

Among "The Vertues" ascribed to the plant, the fol- 
lowing are of special interest. "The leaves are used of 
divers to season meat with, and instead of a sallad, as be 
those of Sorrell." After enumerating various medicinal 
"vertues" he adds: "A conserve made of the fruit and 
sugar performeth all those things before remembered, 
& with better force and successe." 



The Barberry 391 

Phillips, writing in 1822/ quotes from another author as 
follows: "Barberries are of an agreeable, cooling, astrin- 
gent taste, which creates appetite." He further says: 
"Pickled barberries make a handsome garnish for all 
white dishes, where acids can be introduced: this fruit is 
also used for making syrup, lozenges, &c. We have now 
several varieties of barberry-shrub cultivated in England, 
one of which was brought from Candia in 1759, and an- 
other from Siberia in 1790, but it possesses no advantage 
over our native kind of this fruit." 

This common barberry of Europe, Berberis vulgaris, 
has become naturalized in New England and westward, 
and is more or less widely planted elsewhere. Downing 
gives it a brief notice 2 and Fuller 3 enters into a somewhat 
extended discussion of it, mentioning a number of species 
and varieties. 

It is chiefly planted for ornament, rather than fruit, 
and for this purpose the purple-leaved species, Berberis 
Thunbergii, known as the Japanese barberry, which has in- 
ferior fruit, is generally preferred. 

Downing says that "The barberry is too acid to eat, 
but it makes an agreeable preserve and jelly, and an 
ornamental pickle for garnishing some dishes." It comes 
into use later than the currant and probably fills about the 
same place that the buffalo berry might, were that more 
generally cultivated. Hoskins, of Vermont, who had 
both growing, reported it far more productive than the 
buffalo berry, adding that although his plants were set 

1 Pomarium Britanicum, p. 62. 

2 Fruits and Fruit Trees of Amer., p. 442. 

3 Small-Fruit Culturist, p. 20. 



392 Bush-Fruits 

on the lawn for ornament, a good market had been found 
for the fruit. 

Doubtless the barberry would make good jelly, but 
so do the apple and the currant, which are more easily 
prepared. The Japanese quince has even more claim to 
merit as a fruit bearing ornamental than have the vibur- 
num and the barberry. 

Barberries may be propagated by seeds, which should 
be sown or stratified in the fall, or by separating the 
suckers which spring up about the main stem. They may 
also be grown from cuttings of one or two-year-old wood, 
taken in the fall, or treated like currant and gooseberry 
cuttings, though they do not root so readily as these plants. 

The merits of the barberry as an ornamental plant 
need not be further discussed, but as a fruit-producing 
plant it may teach a lesson. We talk much of the im- 
provement of wild fruits, and are almost led to believe 
that we can take anything that is edible, no matter how 
small, hard, sour, puckery or thorny it may be, and by 
careful selection and hybridizing, produce from it a fruit 
which shall delight the taste and swell the purse of coming 
generations. Does not the history of the barberry suggest 
that, after all, there may be some things not worth im- 
proving? 

THE SAND-CHERRY 

Although its relationships might more naturally classify 
it among the stone-fruits, the western sand-cherry may 
well be mentioned in the discussion of miscellaneous 
bush-fruits. This plant is known botanically as Prunus 



The Sand-cherry 393 

Besseyi, Bailey. 1 It is a graceful, somewhat spreading 
shrub, 3 to 4 feet high, with slender, ascending or slightly 
drooping branches. At flowering time the leaves are 
small, narrowly oblanceolate, and slightly whitened be- 
neath, but at maturity they become oval or elliptic, very 
bright and shining on both sides. The flowers are borne 
in axillary clusters all along the younger branches, so 
that at blossoming time these are one mass of bloom. The 
fruit ranges from three-eighths to five-eighths of an inch 
in diameter, and is usually very dark purple or blackish 
in color. In flavor it resembles the improved forms of the 
eastern choke cherry, Prunus virginiana, occasionally 
found in cultivation, but is larger. 

The species is found wild from Manitoba to Kansas 
and westward to the mountains of Colorado and Utah. 
Its value as a fruit-plant has been urged from time to 
time, and it was introduced from Colorado as the improved 
dwarf Rocky Mountain cherry. Plants received under 
this name had been growing in the grounds of the Ne- 
braska Experiment Station for several years, and although 
white with blossoms in springtime, none of the fruit ma- 
tured until wild plants were set in the same garden, prob- 
ably owing to a lack of proper fecundation. 

Similar lack of fruitfulness sometimes occurs when wild 
plants are removed to the garden, though as a rule they 
are immensely productive. Wild plants set in the spring 
of 1895 were loaded with fruit in 1897. The size varies 
much on different plants, showing abundant opportunity 
for selection. It ripens after other cherries, from the 

1 For a fuller account of the species, see Cornell University Ex- 
periment Station Bulletin, 38: 58-65, and 70: 260-262. 



394 Bush-Fruits 

middle to the last of July, in Nebraska. The largest 
fruits are about equal in size to the Early Richmond and 
English Morello, as grown there. Although somewhat 
astringent, it is rather pleasant to eat out of hand. It 
should be left until fully ripe, for this astringency is then 
less noticeable. Any eastern housewife who has known 
the value of the better forms of the eastern choke-cherry, 
though such are few, for that species is little known in 
cultivation, will be able to appreciate the merits of the 
sand-cherry as a fruit. Many western housewives know 
it already. It makes excellent sauce and admirable jelly, 
and is, no doubt, equally good for pies. 

Those familiar with the cultivated choke-cherry find 
that when its fruits are fully ripe their astringency may 
be almost wholly removed by rolling them in a sack or 
shaking them in a closed dish. When so treated they 
make an excellent dish, eaten raw with sugar and cream. 
A similar treatment might improve the sand-cherry. 

Whatever value the sand-cherry may have as a fruit- 
producing plant in the future pomology of the country, 
its position as an ornamental shrub is assured. There is 
no shrub more useful for ornamental planting on the 
Plains than this. It is perfectly hardy, well adapted to 
the region, and is a rapid and vigorous grower. 

As a low-growing shrub, or as a foreground for larger 
groups, it can hardly be surpassed. In the plantings on 
the campus of the University of Nebraska, it has been 
used more extensively than anything else. 

The broad-leaved evergreens, such as rhododendrons, 
mahonias and kalmias, do not succeed in the dry and 
trying climate of the Plains, but this plant is a very satis- 



The Sand-cherry 395 

factory substitute during more than half the year. It is 
one of the first to awaken in spring and one of the last to 
hold its leaves in the fall, being unharmed by the first 
frosts, which ruin the effect of many ornamental shrubs. 
Its bright, clean, glossy foliage closely approaches that 
of the broad-leaved evergreens in effect. It has also the 
very desirable quality of presenting beautiful autumn 
tints, as a parting picture to be held in remembrance 
during the dreary days of winter, a quality all too rare 
among the plants of the Plains, but one which is fully 
appreciated by all who recall the flaming hillsides of an 
eastern October day. 



INDEX 



Acrostalagmus caulophagus, 257. 

After culture, 371. 

Agrilus, red-necked, 239. 

Agrilus ruficollis, 239. 

Amelanchier alnifolia, 386. 

A. Bartramiana, 386. 

A. canadensis, 385. 

A. oblongifolia, 386. 

American black currant, 314. 

American raspberry beetle, 238. 

Anthonomus signatus, 244. 

Anthracnose, groselle, 350. 

Anthracnose, raspberry, 251. 

Apple-maggot on blueberries, 
380. 

Apron for horse, 17. 

Armillaria mellea, 262. 

Aspidiotus juglans-regia, 347. 

Aspidiotus. perniciosus, 336. 

Autumn fruiting of red rasp- 
berries, 51. 

Bacterium tumefaciens, 259. 
Bailey, quoted, 22, 24. 
Barberry, 389. 

— Gerarde's description, 390. 

— propagation, 392. 
Bembecia marginata, 237. 
Berberis Thunbergii, 391. 
Berberis vulgaris, 391. 
Berry harvester, 74. 



Blackberries, 88; acreage, 88; 
botanical derivation, 204; can- 
ning, 104; cost of production, 
113; drought and, 107; drying, 
104; duration of plantations, 
109; evergreen, 102, 117; fer- 
tilizers, 89; hardiness, 110; 
harvesting, 102; marketing, 
102; medicinal qualities, 105; 
mulching, 98; planting, 94; 
profits, 113; propagation, 91; 
pruning, 100; recommended 
varieties, 231; removing the 
plants, 109; soil, 88; tillage, 
97; trellising, 101; yields, 111; 
uses, 103. 
Blackberries, varieties, 203. 
Blackberries, and dewberries, 
varieties, alphabetical list, 214; 
mentioned elsewhere than in 
alphabetical list: Ancient Bri- 
ton, 232; Atlantic, 216; Aus- 
tin's Improved, 225; Child's 
Tree, 229; Climbing, 221; 
Cook's Hardy, 231; Crandall, 
229; Eldorado, 232; Erie, 232; 
Ewing's Wonder, 216; Hima- 
laya, 118; Improved High 
Bush, 217; Loganberry, 232 
Lucretia, 232, Figs. 122, 123 
Mammoth, 118, 132, 232 



397 



398 



Index 



Mayes, 232; Mercereau, 232; 
Orange's Crystal, 217; Oregon 
Climbing, 144; Oregon Ever- 
green, 144; Parsley-leaved, 
144; Sandwich Island, 144; 
Snyder, 231; Star, 216; Tay- 
lor, 232; Thompson's Early 
Mammoth, 225; Ward, 232; 
Wonder, 216. 

Blackberry, Cut-leaved, 144. 

Blackberry, future, 206. 

— history, 206. 

— leaf -miner, 247. 

— mistletoe, 235. 

— psyllid, 234. 

— wine, 105. 

Black currant, American, 314. 
Black currants, 280. 

— varieties, 312. 
Black huckleberry, 376. 
Black raspberries, 60. 

— analysis of, 64. 

— anthracnose, 68. 

— batting, 73. 

— botanical characters, 148. 

— clearing the ground, 83. 

— cutting back young plants, 67. 

— diseases, influence of pruning 

on, 72. 

— distance for planting, 68. 

— drying out of doors, 76. 

— drying under glass, 77. 

— drying, western method of, 81. 

— drying with evaporators, 78. 

— duration of plantations, 82. 

— fertilizers, 62. 

— hardiness, 84. 



Black raspberries, harvesting, 73. 

— history, 148. 

— location, 61. 

— marketing, 82. 

— planting, 66. 

— pinching back, 70. 

— profits, 86. 

— propagation, 64. 

— pruning, 70. 

— recommended varieties, 165. 

— site, 61. 

— soil, 60. 

— soils, influence on yields, 61. 

— tillage, 69. 

— tipping, 71. 

— tools for layering tips, 65. 

— varieties, 150. 

— yields, 84. 

— yields of dried fruit, 85. 
Blueberries, 361. 
Blueberry barrens, 379. 
Blueberry, Canadian, 377. 

— dwarf, 377. 

— low, 377, 379. 

— pale, 379. 

— swamp, 379. 

Blue-stem, black raspberry, 257. 
Borer, American currant, 341. 
Borer, imported currant, 338. 
Botany of the blackberries, 204. 

dewberries, 210. 

black raspberries, 148. 

currants, 299. 

— gooseberries, 316. 

huckleberries, 375. 

red and hybrid rasp- 
berries, 165. 



Index 



399 



Botryosphceria Ribis, 341, 351. 
Bramble crown-borer, 237. 
Bramble diseases, 250. 
Bramble flea-louse, 234. 
Bramble insects, 233. 
Brambles, double white and 

pink, 145. 
Brambles, miscellaneous, 134. 
Breeding raspberries, 38. 
Brinckle, Wm. D., 174. 
Bud-moth, 236. 
Buffalo berry, 355. 
— ■ history, 356. 

— propagation, 357. 

— sex of plants, 357. 
Buffalo currant, 314. 
Bush-fruits, position in com- 
mercial field, 2. 

Byturus unicolor, 238. 

Cceoma inter stitiale, 250. 
Cceoma nitens, 251. 
Cane-blight, currant, 351. 
Cane-blight, raspberry, 254. 
Cane-borer, raspberry, 243. 
Cane-borer, red-necked, 239. 
Cane-maggot, raspberry, 238. 
Carriers, picking, 32. 
Census statistics, 2. 
Chinese raspberry, 137, 141. 
Cluster-cup, gooseberry, 353. 
Cold-storage, 33. 
Corimelcena pulicaria, 249. 
Cost of producing blackberries, 

113. 
Cover-crops, 6, 99. 
Coville quoted, 366. 



Cranberry, tree, 387. 
Cronartium ribicola, 352. 
Crossing berries, 34. 
Crown-borer, bramble, 237. 
Crown-gall, 259. 
Cultivation, 14. 
Currant borer, American, 341. 
imported, 338. 

— Buffalo, 314. 

— cane-blight, 351. 

— felt-rust, 352. 

— fruit-fly, dark, 341. 
yellow, 340. 

— fruit-weevil, 381. 

— Golden, 314. 

— history, 302. 

— insects, 334. 

— leaf-spot, 351. 

— plant-louse, 335. 

— seedlings, behavior of, 303. 

— stem-girdler, 345. 

— worm, green, 345. 

imported, 342. 

Currants, 263. 

— area of, 264. 

— black, 280. 

— black, varieties, 312. 

— durations of plantations, 277. 

— fertilizers, 266. 

— gathering, 275. 

— hardiness, 278. 

— market for, 264. 

— marketing, 275. 

— ornamental, 331. 

— picking, 275. 

— planting, 270. 

— profits, 280. 



400 



Index 



Currants, propagation, 267. 

— pruning, 272. 

— recommended varieties, 315. 

— soil and location, 265. 

— tillage, 271. 

— uses, 276. 

— varieties, 299. 

— varieties, alphabetical list of 
black, 312; varieties, alpha- 
betical list of red and white, 
304; varieties mentioned else- 
where than alphabetically : 
BeUe de St. Giles, 309; 
Bertin No. 9, 309; Black 
English, 313; Caucasian, 310; 
Chautauqua, 315; Chenon- 
ceaux, 309; Cherry, 314; 
Clarke's Sweet, 310; Climb- 
ing, 305; Fay, 315; Fertile, 
309; Fertile d' Angers, 310; 
Fertile d'Angleterre, 309; Fer- 
tile de Bertin, 309; Fertile de 
Palluau, 308, 309; Golden, 
314; Goliath, 310; Green- 
fruited, 313; Groseillier, a 
Fruit Couleur de Chair, 304; 
Groseillier Rouge a. Grosse 
Fruit, 309; Grosse Rouge de 
Boulogne, 309; Hative de 
Bertin, 307, 309; Houghton 
Castle, 310; Imperial Blanc, 
310; Imperiale Jaune, 307; 
Imperiale Rouge, 307; Im- 
perial White, 310; La Caucase, 
310; La Fertile, 307; La Ha- 
tive, 309; Large-Bunched Red, 
309; Long-Bunched Holland, 



307; Long-Bunched Red, 307, 
309; Macrocarpa, 310; May's 
Victoria, 307, 310; Morgan's 
Red, 309; Morgan's White, 
310; Ogden's Black Grape, 
312; Pheasant's Eye, 304; 
Prince Albert, 315; Prince of 
Wales, 315; Queen Victoria, 
309; Raby Castle, 307, 310; 
Red Dutch, Long-Bunched, 
307; Red Grape, 309, 310; 
Red Provence, 306; Reeves' 
White, 310; Russian Green, 
313; Short-Bunched Red, 307; 
Silver Striped, 309; Versailles, 
310; Victoria, 315; White 
Antwerp, 310; White Clinton, 
310; White Crystal, 310; 
White Grape, 215; White 
Holland, 310; White Imperial, 
307, 315; White Leghorn, 310; 
White Pearl, 310; Wilder, 
315; Wilmot's Red Grape, 310. 

Currants, yield, 279. 

Cylindrosporium Rubi, 257. 

Cymatophora riberearia, 339. 

Dangleberry, 376. 
Dasyneura grossularice, 340. 
Dewberries, 119, 203, 209. 
— ■ botanical derivation, 210. 

— duration of plantations, 129. 

— fertilizers, 124;. 

— future, 120. 

— hardiness, 130. 
— ■ harvesting, 129. 

— history, 119. 



Index 



401 



Dewberries, killing the plants, 
129. 

— location, 124. 

— marketing, 129. 

— planting, 125. 

— profits, 131. 

— propagation, 125. 

— pruning, 127. 

— recommended varieties, 

231. 

— soil, 124. 

— tillage, 126. 

— training, 127. 

— varieties, alphabetical list of, 

214. 

— western, 131. 

— yield, 130. 

Diseases of brambles, 250. 

groselles, 348. r 

Distance for planting, 10. 
Dodoen, quoted, 171, 207. 
Double-blossom, 258. 
Double pink bramble, 145. 
Double white bramble, 145. 
Downing quoted, 391. 
Drought, lessening effects of, 
107. 

— resistance, 6. 
Drying blackberries, 104. 
Drying black-caps, 70. 
Duration of plantations, black- 
berry, 109. 

black-cap, 82. 

■ — currant, 277. 

dewberry, 129. 

■ — gooseberry, 294. 

red raspberry, 54. 



Elaeagnus edulis, 361. 
E. longipes, 361. 

— multiflorus, 359. 

— pungens, 361. 

— umbellatus, 361. 
English gooseberries, 297. 
Epochra canadensis, 340. 
Evaporating black-caps, 78. 

— purple-cane raspberries, 54. 

— red raspberries, 53. 
Evaporators, 78. 

Evergreen blackberries, 102, 117. 
Exartema permundanum, 249. 
Exposure for red raspberries, 42. 

Felt-rust, currant, 352. 

Fertilizers, 8. 

Fertilizers for blackberries, 89. 

■ black-caps, 62. 

currants, 266. 

dewberries, 124. 

gooseberries, 284. 

■ red raspberries, 43. 

Forcing bush-fruits, 28. 
Four-lined leaf-bug, 334. 
Fruit-fly, dark currant, 341. 

— , yellow currant, 340. 
Fruit-weevil, currant, 381. 
Fruit-worm, gooseberry, 337. 
Furrows for planting, 11. 
Fusarium rubi, 258. 

Future of the blackberry, 206. 
dewberry, 120. 

Galerucella decora, 381. 
Gaylussacia, 375. 
Gaylussacia baccata, 376. 



402 



Index 



Gaylussacia frondosa, 376. 
Geometer, raspberry, 248. 
Gerarde quoted, 318, 390. 
Gerarde's picture of raspberry, 

173. 
Giant root-borer, 249. 
Gloesporiwn Venetum, 251. 
Golden currant, 314. 
Gooseberries, 282. 

— American type, 318. 

— area of, 282. 

— duration of plantations, 294. 

— English, 297. 

— European type, 317. 

— fertilizers, 284. 

— future, 318. 

— gathering, 291. 

— grafting, 287. > 

— hardiness, 295. 

— history, 318. 

— location, 283. 

— marketing, 291. 

— mulching, 289. 

— ornamental, 331. 

— picking, 291. 

— planting, 288. 

— profits, 296. 

— propagation, 284. 

— pruning, 289. 

— recommended varieties, 331. 

— soil, 283. 

— tillage, 288. 

— training, 291. 

— uses, 293. 

— varieties, 316. 

— varieties, alphabetical list, 321 ; 
mentioned elsewhere than 



in alphabetical list: American 
Cluster, 326; American Red, 
326; American Red Jacket, 
331; American Seedling, 326; 
Aston Seedling, 328; Chautau- 
qua, 331; Downing, 331; 
Dutch Joe, 326; Engle's Yel- 
low, 326; Houghton, 320; 
Industry, 331; Ohio Prolific, 
326; Ohio Seedling, 326; Poor- 
man, 331; Robert's Sweet- 
water, 326; St. Clair, 326; 
Whinham's Industry, 324. 

— varieties, recommended, 331. 

— yield, 295. 
Gooseberry cluster-cup, 353. 

— fruit-worm, 337. 

— future of, 318. 

— history, 318. 

— insects, 334. 

— midge, 340. 

— mildew, 296, 348. 

— name, derivation, 319. 

— span-worm, 339. 
Goumi, 359. 
Gouty-gall beetle, 239. 
Grafting gooseberries, 287. 
Groselle diseases, 348. 

— insects, 334. 

— stem-miner, 346. 
Groselles, 263. 
Groselles, ornamental, 331. 
Gymnonychus appendiculatus, 

345. 

Hardiness, 20. 

Hardiness of blackberries, 110. 



Index 



403 



Hardiness of black-caps, 84. 

currants, 278. 

dewberries, 130. 

gooseberries, 295. 

red raspberries, 56. 

Hartigia, abdominalis, 247. 
Harvester, berry, 74. 
Harvesting blackberries, 102. 

— black-caps, 73. 

— dewberries, 129. 

— red raspberries, 53. 
Heeling-in, 11. 
Herstine, David W., 175. 
History of the blackberry, 206. 

— black-cap, 148. 

■ currant, 302. 

dewberry, 119. 

gooseberry, 318. 

red raspberries, 170. 

Horntail, raspberry, 247. 
Huckleberries, 361. 

— botanical derivation, 362. 

— commercial importance, 363. 

— fertilizers, 374. 

— history in cultivation, 364. 

— hybrids, 375. 

— insects, 379. 

— interpolhnation, 372. 

— nomenclature, 361. 

— planting, 371, 373. 
— ■ propagation, 367. 

— returns, probable, 373. 

— root-cuttings, 371. 

— root-fungus, 365. 

— root-growth, 371. 

— soil mixture, 366. 

— soil reaction demanded, 365. 



Huckleberries, species involved, 
375. 

— stumping, 367. 

— tubering, 368. 

— varieties, 374. 

— ■ winter cuttings, 369. 
Huckleberry, black, 376. 

— high, 379. 
Humus, importance, 6. 
Hybrid raspberries, 165. 

alphabetical list of va- 
rieties, 176. 
Hybrid reds, 58. 
Hybrids, Rubus, 39. 

Implements, pruning, 18. 

Individuality of plant, 10. 

Insects affecting the brambles, 
233. 

groselles, 334. 

• — huckleberry, 379. 

Intercropping, 13. 

Intercrops, 97. 

Intermingling varieties of black- 
berries, 96. 

dewberries, 126. 

Janus integer, 345. 
Juneberries, 381. 

— bird depredations, 383. 

— enemies, 384. 

— fruit, 382. 

— productiveness, 383. 

— propagation, 384. 
Juneberry, 385. 

— dwarf, 386. 

— northern dwarf, 386. 



404 



Index 



Juneberry, success, 381. 
Juneberry vs. huckleberry, 381. 

Killing out dewberries, 129. 
Kirkpatrick quoted, 22. 
Kuehneola uridinis, 258. 

Laying-down canes, 21. 
Leaf-beetle on blueberries, 381. 
Leaf-miner, blackberry, 247. 
Leaf-roller, raspberry, 249. 
Leaf -rusts, 258. 
Leaf-spot, currant, 351. 
Leaf -spots, 257. 
Lepargyrcea argentea, 355. 
Leptosphceria coniothyrium, 254. 
Location, 3. 

— for black-caps, 61. 

currants, 265. 

dewberries, 124. 

gooseberries, 283. 

red raspberries, 42. 

Loganberry, 132. 
Lycia cognataria, 347. 
Lygus pratensis, 248. 

Macrodactylus subspinosus, 241. 
Maine, blueberries in, 379. 
Marketing, 31. 

— blackberries, 102. 

— black-caps, 82. 

— currants, 264. 

— dewberries, 129. 

— gooseberries, 291. 

— red raspberries, 53. 
Marking the field, 11. 
Maturity of cane, 14. 



Mayberry, 134. 
Medullary spots, 347. 
Metallus rubi, 247. 
Midge, gooseberry, 340. 
Mildew, gooseberry, 296, 348. 
Mistletoe, blackberry, 235. 
Monophadnus rubi, 245. 
Mosaic, raspberry, 261. 
Mulching, 15. 
Mulching blackberries, 98. 
Muzzle for horse, 17. 
Mycosphcerella, rubina, 256. 
Mysus ribis, 335. 

Negro-bug, 249. 

New York Expt. Station, rasp- 
berry breeding, 38. 

Oberea bimaculata, 243. 
(Ecanthus nigricornis, 233. 
Opostega nonstrigella, 346. 
Oriental raspberries, 134. 
Ornamental brambles, 138. 

— groselles, 331. 

Packages, 31. 

Pamphilius, Fletcheri, 247. 

Pedigree plants, 10. 

Pepper and salt currant-moth, 

347. 
Phillips quoted, 391. 
Phorbia rubivora, 238. 
Phragmidium, 258. 
Picking, 29. 

— currants, 275. 

— gooseberries, 291. 
Picking-stands, 32. 



Index 



405 



Planting, 9. 

— blackberries, 94. 

— black-caps, 66. 

— currants, 270. 

— dewberries, 125. 

— gooseberries, 288. 

— red raspberries, 46. 
Plant-louse, currant, 335. 
Pliny quoted, 206. 
Paecilocapsus lineatus, 334. 
Pollination of red raspberries, 

47. 
Prionus laticollis, 249. 
Profits from blackberries, 113. 

— black-caps, 86. 

— currants, 280. 

— dewberries, 131. 

— gooseberries, 296. 

— red raspberries, 58. 
Propagation, 26. 
Propagation of blackberries, 91. 
black-caps, 64. 

currants, 267. 

dewberries, 125. 

— ■ — gooseberries, 285. 

red raspberries, 45. 

Pruning, 17. 

Pruning blackberries, 100. 

— ■ black-caps, 70. 

— currants, 272. 

— dewberries, 127. 

— gooseberries, 288. 

— red raspberries, 48. 
Pruning implements, 18. 
Prunus Besseyi, 393. 
Psenocerus supernotatus, 341. 
Pseudanthonomus validus, 381. 



Pseudopeziza Ribis, 350. 

Psyllid, blackberry, 234. 

Pteronus ribesii, 342. 

Puccinia Peckiana, 251. 

Puccinia ribes-caricis, 353. 

Purple-cane raspberries, 59, 
168. 

Purple-cane raspberries, evap- 
orating, 54. 

Purple-flowering raspberry, 138. 

Rake for gathering prunings, 18. 
Raspberries, black, varieties, 
alphabetical list, 150. 

botanical characters, 158. 

history, 148. 

— oriental, 134. 

— purple-cane, 168. 

— red, 41. 

botanical characters, 165. 

— — ■ history, 170. 

— varieties, 147. 

— — red and hybrid, alphabet- 
ical list, 176. 

mentioned elsewhere than 

in alphabetical list: Abel, 
185; Alden, 160; AUen, 183, 
195; Amazon, 184; American 
Improved, 152; American Red 
Cane, 195; Autumn black 
raspberry, 158; Baldwin's 
Choice, 200; Belle de Fon- 
tenay, 184; Belle d'Orleans, 
184; Black Diamond, 152; 
Brackett's No. 101, 158; Brin- 
ckle's Orange, 193; Burley, 
196; Butler, 152; Carpenter's 



406 



Index 



No. 2, 186; Chili Monthly, 
202; Collinsville Miami, 158 
Columbian, 175, 202;Conover 
181; Cornwall's Prolific, 178 
Cuthbert, 175, 202; Doolittle's 
red-flavored black-cap, 185 
Double-bearing Yellow, 202 
Dwinelle, 178; English Black 
178; English Brown, 195 
English Purple, 183, 195 
English Red, 177, 195; Eng- 
lish Red-cane, 183; Erie, 186 
Extra Late, 155; False Red- 
cane, 183; Farnsworth, 153 
Filby, 184; Frambosier a 
Gros Fruit, 196; Frambosier 
Couleur de Chair, 184; Garden 
Raspberry, 195; Golden Cap, 
150; Great Western, 155; 
Gregg, 165; Griesa, 179; Hark- 
ness, 156; Herbert, 202; Hoos- 
ier Mammoth, 155; Hunts- 
ville, 195; Johnston's Sweet, 
157; Joslyn, 152; June, 202; 
Kansas, 165; Kentucky, 153; 
Kelsey, 178; Kirtland, 184; 
Knevett's Antwerp, 196; 
Large Orange, 197; Late Cane, 
182; Late Liberian, 182; Lord 
Exmouth, 178; Lotta, 165; 
Loudon, 202; Mammoth Clus- 
ter, 158; Marlboro, 175, 202; 
Mason's Seedling Grape, 186; 
Melott's Favorite, 192; Mer- 
veille de Quatre Saisons, 185; 
Mills No. 7, 161; Monthly 
black-cap, 160; Naomi, 185; 



Negley, 154; Nemaha, 165; 
New French, 178; New Red 
Antwerp, 187; North River 
Antwerp, 187; October Red, 
185; October Yellow, 185; 
Ohio, 165; Ohta, 202; Old 
English YeUow, 183; Older, 
165; Orange King, 177; Per- 
petual-bearing, 182; Plum 
Farmer, 165; Progress, 161; 
Prosser, 179; Queen of the 
Market, 181; Quinby's Favor- 
ite, 181; Ranere, 202; Red 
Prolific, 195; Red Thornless, 
200; Rivers' New Monthly, 
189; Royal Purple, 202; St. 
Regis, 196; Shaffer, 175; Shaf- 
fer's Sister, 192; Smith's Iron- 
clad, 156; Southern Red, 200; 
Southern Thornless, 200; Stay- 
man's No. 5, 193; Sunbeam, 
202; Susqueco, 178; Twice- 
bearing, 182, 183; Victor, 200; 
Waters' Success, 164; Western 
Triumph, 155; White Antwerp, 
202; White Four-seasons, 185; 
White Thimbleberry, 150; 
White Transparent, 199; Wil- 
mington, 178; Yellow Canada, 
177; YeUow Cap, 150. 
Raspberry beetle, American, 
238. 

— blue-stem, 257. 

— cane-blight, 254. 
— ■ cane-borer, 243. 

— cane-maggot, 238. 

— Chinese, 137, 141. 



Index 



407 



Raspberry geometer, 248. 

— horntail, 247. 

— leaf-roller, 249. 

— saw-fly, 245. 

— spur-blight, 256. ' 

— web-worm, 247. 
Recommended varieties of black- 
berries and dewberries, 231. 

black-caps, 165. 

currants, 315. 

gooseberries, 331. 

red and hybrid rasp- 
berries, 202. 
Records, picking, 29. 
Red-necked cane-borer, 239. 
Red and hybrid raspberries, 

alphabetical list of varieties, 

176. 
recommended varieties, 

202. 
Red raspberries, 41. 

autumn fruiting, 50. 

botanical characters, 165. 

■ duration of plantations, 54. 

exposure for, 42. 

fertilizers, 43. 

hardiness of, 56. 

harvesting, 53. 

history, 170. 

marketing, 53. 

planting, 46. 

pollination, 47. 

profits, 58. 

propagation of, 45. 

pruning, 48. 

site, 42. 

soil, 41. 



Red raspberries, tillage, 48. 

uses, 53. 

yields, 57. 

Red rust, 250. 

Red-spider, 246. 

Rhagoletis pomonella, 380. 

Rhagoletis ribicola, 341. 

Ribes acerifolium, 805; R. alpes- 
Ire, 333; R. alpinum, 333; 
R. americanum, 300; R. amic- 
tum, 333; R. aureum, 301, 331; 
R. calif ornicum, 333; R. Cynos- 
bati, 316; R. fasciculatum, 
333; R. floridum, 300; R. Gor- 
donianum, 333; Ribes Grossu- 
laria, 316; R. hirtellum, 316, 
317; R. inerme, 317; R. irrig- 
uum, 317; R. Lobbii, 333; 
R. 7nissourien.se, 317; R. ni- 
grum, 299; R. odoratum, 301, 
331; R. oxyacanthoides, 316, 
317; R. rubrum, 299; R. san- 
guineum, 331; R. setosum, 217; 
R. speciosum, 331; R. triste, 
299; Ribes vulgare, 299; R. 
vulgare, var. macrocarpum, 299. 

Root-borer, giant, 249. 

Root-cuttings, blackberry, 92. 

— huckleberry, 371. 

Rose chafer, 241. 

Rubus allegheniensis, 204; R. 
arcticus, 142; R. argutus, 204; 
R. Bailey anus, 211; R. cana- 
densis, 205, 210; R. cratwgtfo- 
lius, 137, 141; R. cuneifolius, 
205; R. deliciosus, 139; R. 
Enslenii, 211; R. floridus, 204; 



408 



Index 



R. frondosus, 204; R. Henryi, 
145; R. Hoffmeisteriana, 137; 
R. Idaens, 165, 174; R. ille- 
cebrosus, 135; R. invisus, 211; 
R. laciniatus, 102, 144; R. 
leucodermis, 148; R. Mill- 
spaughii, 205; R. negledus, 
59, 168; R. negledus, hybrid 
origin, 39; R. nutkanus, 139; 
R. occidentalis, 148; R. odora- 
tus, 138; R. palmatus, 134; 
R. parviflorus, 138; R. phceni- 
colasius, 136, 142; i2. procum- 
bens, 210; JS. roscefolius, 135; 
.R. sorbifolius, 135; i2. speda- 
bilis, 143; 22. strigosus, 165, 
174; R. trifidus, 145; i2. trivial- 
is, 211; 5. villosus, 210; R. 
villosus, var. humifusus, 211; 
R. vitifolius, 131, 211; R. 
Xanthocarpus, 138. 

Salmon-berry, 139, 143. 
Sand-cherry, 392. 

— fruiting qualities, 393. 

— ornamental qualities, 394. 
San Jose scale, 336. 
Saw-fly, raspberry, 245. 
Scale insects, 249. 
Scuffle-hoe, 16. 

Seedlings, currant, behavior of, 

303. 
Seeds, growing plants from, 26. 
Septoria Ribis, 351. 
Septoria Rubi, 257. 
Service berry, western, 386. 
Sesia tipuliformis, 338. 



Setting plants, 13. 

Shad Bush, 385, 386. 

Shade for red raspberries, 47. 

Shepherdia argentea, 355. 

Site, 5. 

Site for red raspberries, 42. 

Small fruits, acreage, 2. 

Soil, 5. 

Soil acidity, 7. 

Soil for blackberries, 88. 

black-caps, 60. 

currants, 268. 

— — dewberries, 124. 

• gooseberries, 283. 

red raspberries, 41. 

Span-worm, gooseberry, 339. 
Sphcerotheca mors-uvae, 348. 
Spur-blight, raspberry, 256. 
Stable-manure, 63. 
Staking, 19. 

Staking red raspberries, 51. 
Stem-girdler, currant, 345. 
Stem-miner, groselle, 346. 
Strawberry-raspberry, 135. 
Strawberry weevil, 244. 

Tangleberry, 376. 
Tarnished plant-bug, 248. 
Tetranychus bimaculatus, 246. 
Thimbleberry, 138. 
Thinning, 28. 
TiUage, 14. 

— for blackberries, 97. 

black-caps, 69. 

currants, 271. 

dewberries, 126. 

gooseberries, 288. 



Index 



409 



Tillage of red raspberries, 48. 
Tillage tools, 16. 
Tmetocera ocellana, 236. 
Toadstools, 262. 

Tools for putting down black- 
cap tips, 65. 
Tools, tillage, 16. 
Training dewberries, 127. 
Training gooseberries, 291. 
Tree cranberry, 387. 
Tree-cricket, 233. 
Trellis for blackberries, 101. 
dewberries, 127. 

— hinged, 25. 
Trellising, 19. 

— red raspberries, 51. 
Trioza tripunctata, 234. 

Uses of blackberries, 103. 

currants, 275. 

gooseberries, 293. 

red raspberries, 53. 

Vaccinium, 375. 

Vaccinium canadense, 377; V. 
corymbosum, 379; V. penn- 
sylvanicum, 377; V. va- 
cillans, 379. 

Varieties of blackberries and dew- 
berries, 203, 214. 



Varieties of black raspberries, 
150. 

currants, 299. 

black, 312. 

■ — red and white, 304. 

gooseberries, 316. 

raspberries, 147. 

black, 150. 

red and hybrid, 176. 

Viburnum americanum, 388. 
Viburnum opulus, 388. 

Walnut scale, 347. 
Waterton, quoted, 207. 
Webworm, raspberry, 247. 
Western dewberries, 131. 
Wine, blackberry, 106. 
Wineberry, 136, 142. 
Winter-killing, 20. 
Winter protection, 21. 
Wurzelkropf, 260. 

Yellows, raspberry, 261. 
Yield of blackberries, 111. 

black-caps, 84. 

currants, 279. 

— — ■ dewberries, 130. 

gooseberries, 295. 

red raspberries, 57. 

Zophodia grossularice, 337. 



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